Traumatic Cardiac Arrest—A Narrative Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Epidemiology
Etiology
- -
- Hypovolemia (Hemorrhage, until proven otherwise);
- -
- Oxygenation impairment;
- -
- Tension pneumothorax;
- -
- Tamponade of the pericardium, i.e., ‘cardiac tamponade’.
3. Outcomes
3.1. Diagnostic Dilemma of PEA versus Pseudo PEA
3.2. Therapy
3.3. Tension Pneumothorax
4. ‘Circulation’ Challenges
4.1. Hypovolemia Causing TCA
4.2. Cardiac Rhythms in TCA
4.3. Chest Compression in TCA
4.4. Cardiac Injuries Causing TCA
4.5. Cardiac Contusion
4.6. Cardiac Electrotrauma-Induced Arrest
5. Guidelines
5.1. Foundation of TCA Guidelines
5.2. Guidelines, When to (Not) Initiate TCA Resuscitation
- -
- No signs of life for at least 15 min;
- -
- Catastrophic injuries, e.g., penetrating head injury, loss of brain tissue.
- -
- No ROSC after potentially reversible TCA causes were addressed;
- -
- No cardiac motion in POCUS, even with organized ECG activity present, after the reversible causes of TCA were addressed.
5.3. Exceptions from the TCA Guidelines
5.4. Adrenaline in TCA
5.5. Relative Hypovolemia in TCA
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ohlen, D.; Hedberg, M.; Martinsson, P.; von Oelreich, E.; Djarv, T.; Jonsson Fagerlund, M. Characteristics and outcome of traumatic cardiac arrest at a level 1 trauma centre over 10 years in Sweden. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 2022, 30, 54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, P.H.; Huang, C.H.; Chen, I.C.; Huang, E.P.; Lien, W.C.; Huang, C.H. Survival factors in patients of high fall—A 10-year level-I multi-trauma center study. Injury 2022, 53, 932–937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lott, C.; Truhlar, A.; Alfonzo, A.; Barelli, A.; Gonzalez-Salvado, V.; Hinkelbein, J.; Nolan, J.P.; Paal, P.; Perkins, G.D.; Thies, K.C.; et al. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: Cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation 2021, 161, 152–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clifford, E.; Stourton, F.; Willers, J.; Colucci, G. Development of a Low-Cost, High-Fidelity, Reusable Model to Simulate Clamshell Thoracotomy. Surg. Innov. 2023, 30, 739–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Krammel, M.; Frimmel, N.; Hamp, T.; Grassmann, D.; Widhalm, H.; Verdonck, P.; Reisinger, C.; Sulzgruber, P.; Schnaubelt, S. Outcomes and potential for improvement in the prehospital treatment of penetrating chest injuries in a European metropolitan area: A retrospective analysis of 2009–2017. Injury 2023, 55, 110971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, P.; de Leeuw, M.A.; Terra, M.; Loer, S.A.; Schwarte, L.A. Emergency clamshell thoracotomy in blunt trauma resuscitation: Shelling the paradigm-2 cases and review of the literature. Clin. Case Rep. 2018, 6, 1521–1524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seewald, S.; Wnent, J.; Grasner, J.T.; Tjelmeland, I.; Fischer, M.; Bohn, A.; Bouillon, B.; Maurer, H.; Lefering, R. Survival after traumatic cardiac arrest is possible-a comparison of German patient-registries. BMC Emerg. Med. 2022, 22, 158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rasmussen, M.A.; Moen, H.S.; Milling, L.; Munthe, S.; Rosenlund, C.; Poulsen, F.R.; Brochner, A.C.; Mikkelsen, S. An increased potential for organ donors may be found among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 2022, 30, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schnuriger, B.; Inaba, K.; Branco, B.C.; Salim, A.; Russell, K.; Lam, L.; Plurad, D.; Demetriades, D. Organ donation: An important outcome after resuscitative thoracotomy. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2010, 211, 450–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esparaz, J.R.; Waters, A.M.; Mathis, M.S.; Deng, L.; Xie, R.; Chen, M.K.; Beierle, E.A.; Russell, R.T. The Disturbing Findings of Pediatric Firearm Injuries From the National Trauma Data Bank: 2010–2016. J. Surg. Res. 2021, 259, 224–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kleber, C.; Giesecke, M.T.; Lindner, T.; Haas, N.P.; Buschmann, C.T. Requirement for a structured algorithm in cardiac arrest following major trauma: Epidemiology, management errors, and preventability of traumatic deaths in Berlin. Resuscitation 2014, 85, 405–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lewis, J.; Perkins, G.D. Traumatic cardiac arrest. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2023, 29, 162–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnard, E.; Yates, D.; Edwards, A.; Fragoso-Iniguez, M.; Jenks, T.; Smith, J.E. Epidemiology and aetiology of traumatic cardiac arrest in England and Wales—A retrospective database analysis. Resuscitation 2017, 110, 90–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Talmy, T.; Greenstein, I.; Gendler, S.; Chayen, D.; Radomislensky, I.; Ahimor, A.; Koler, T.; Glassberg, E.; Almog, O. Survival following Prehospital Traumatic Cardiac Arrest Resuscitation in the Israel Defense Forces: A Retrospective Study. Prehosp. Emerg. Care 2023, 14, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barnard, E.B.G.; Hunt, P.A.F.; Lewis, P.E.H.; Smith, J.E. The outcome of patients in traumatic cardiac arrest presenting to deployed military medical treatment facilities: Data from the UK Joint Theatre Trauma Registry. J. R. Army Med. Corp. 2018, 164, 150–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zwingmann, J.; Mehlhorn, A.T.; Hammer, T.; Bayer, J.; Sudkamp, N.P.; Strohm, P.C. Survival and neurologic outcome after traumatic out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest in a pediatric and adult population: A systematic review. Crit. Care 2012, 16, R117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leis, C.C.; Hernandez, C.C.; Blanco, M.J.; Paterna, P.C.; Hernandez Rde, E.; Torres, E.C. Traumatic cardiac arrest: Should advanced life support be initiated? J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013, 74, 634–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tran, A.; Fernando, S.M.; Rochwerg, B.; Vaillancourt, C.; Inaba, K.; Kyeremanteng, K.; Nolan, J.P.; McCredie, V.A.; Petrosoniak, A.; Hicks, C.; et al. Pre-arrest and intra-arrest prognostic factors associated with survival following traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation 2020, 153, 119–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, A.L.; Li, T.; Becker, L.B.; Owens, C.; Singh, N.; Gold, A.; Nelson, M.J.; Jafari, D.; Haddad, G.; Nello, A.V.; et al. Femoral artery Doppler ultrasound is more accurate than manual palpation for pulse detection in cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2022, 173, 156–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, P.; van Schuppen, H.; Schwarte, L.A. A mnemonic for high quality basic life support: The RACERS acronym. Resuscitation 2022, 176, 24–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lalande, E.; Burwash-Brennan, T.; Burns, K.; Harris, T.; Thomas, S.; Woo, M.Y.; Atkinson, P. Is point-of-care ultrasound a reliable predictor of outcome during traumatic cardiac arrest? A systematic review and meta-analysis from the SHoC investigators. Resuscitation 2021, 167, 128–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Caap, P.; Aagaard, R.; Sloth, E.; Lofgren, B.; Granfeldt, A. Reduced right ventricular diameter during cardiac arrest caused by tension pneumothorax—A porcine ultrasound study. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 2017, 61, 813–823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lai, J.; Kuttab, H.; Newberry, R.; Stader, M.; Cathers, A. Prehospital Ultrasound Use to Guide Resuscitative Thoracotomy in Blunt Traumatic Cardiac Arrest. Air Med. J. 2022, 41, 494–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rogerson, T.; Efstratiades, T.; Von Oppell, U.; Davies, G.; Curtin, R. Survival after pre-hospital emergency clamshell thoracotomy for blunt cardiac rupture. Injury 2020, 51, 122–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, A.E.; Jones, G.A.; Nystrom, P.C.; Stirling, A.; Vanderbosch, K.; Simpson, N.S. Prehospital Pericardiocentesis Using a Pneumothorax Needle. Prehosp. Emerg. Care 2022, 26, 406–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, P.; Christiaans, H.M.; Loer, S.A.; Schwarte, L.A. Airway obstruction due to aspiration of muddy water. Emerg. Med. J. 2013, 30, 854–855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, P.; Biesheuvel, T.; de Leeuw, M.A.; Loer, S.A.; Schwarte, L.A. Prehospital cricothyrotomies in a helicopter emergency medical service: Analysis of 19,382 dispatches. BMC Emerg. Med. 2019, 19, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schober, P.; Hegemann, M.C.; Schwarte, L.A.; Loer, S.A.; Noetges, P. Emergency cricothyrotomy-a comparative study of different techniques in human cadavers. Resuscitation 2009, 80, 204–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Breeding, T.; Martinez, B.; Katz, J.; Kim, J.; Havron, W.; Hoops, H.; Elkbuli, A. CAB versus ABC approach for resuscitation of patients following traumatic injury: Toward improving patient safety and survival. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 2023, 68, 28–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Emerling, A.D.; Bianchi, W.; Krzyzaniak, M.; Deaton, T.; Via, D.; Archer, B.; Sutherland, J.; Shannon, K.; Dye, J.L.; Clouser, M.; et al. Rapid Sequence Induction Strategies Among Critically Injured U.S. Military During the Afghanistan and Iraq Conflicts. Mil. Med. 2021, 186, 316–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shahali, H.; Farahani, A.A. Unexpected Fatal Tension Pneumothorax: A Case Report Regarding a Patient With Multiple Traumas on Air Medical Transportation. Air Med. J. 2021, 40, 127–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harris, C.T.; Taghavi, S.; Bird, E.; Duchesne, J.; Jacome, T.; Tatum, D. Prehospital Simple Thoracostomy Does Not Improve Patient Outcomes Compared to Needle Thoracostomy in Severely Injured Trauma Patients. Am. Surg. 2023, 89, 1736–1743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Butler, F.K., Jr.; Holcomb, J.B.; Shackelford, S.A.; Montgomery, H.R.; Anderson, S.; Cain, J.S.; Champion, H.R.; Cunningham, C.W.; Dorlac, W.C.; Drew, B.; et al. Management of Suspected Tension Pneumothorax in Tactical Combat Casualty Care: TCCC Guidelines Change 17-02. J. Spec. Oper. Med. 2018, 18, 19–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schroeder, E.; Valdez, C.; Krauthamer, A.; Khati, N.; Rasmus, J.; Amdur, R.; Brindle, K.; Sarani, B. Average chest wall thickness at two anatomic locations in trauma patients. Injury 2013, 44, 1183–1185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, Y.; Wang, L.; Chen, C.; Que, Y.; Li, Y.; Luo, J.; Yin, M.; Lv, M.; Xu, G. Safety and Risk Factors of Needle Thoracentesis Decompression in Tension Pneumothorax in Patients over 75 Years Old. Can. Respir. J. 2023, 2023, 2602988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weichenthal, L.A.; Owen, S.; Stroh, G.; Ramos, J. Needle Thoracostomy: Does Changing Needle Length and Location Change Patient Outcome? Prehosp. Disaster Med. 2018, 33, 237–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faizi, Z.; Morales, J.; Hlopak, J.; Batool, A.; Ratnasekera, A. Cardiac tamponade secondary to iatrogenic needle decompression in blunt force trauma. Bayl. Univ. Med. Cent. Proc. 2022, 35, 524–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jansen, J.O.; Hudson, J.; Cochran, C.; MacLennan, G.; Lendrum, R.; Sadek, S.; Gillies, K.; Cotton, S.; Kennedy, C.; Boyers, D.; et al. Emergency Department Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta in Trauma Patients With Exsanguinating Hemorrhage: The UK-REBOA Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 2023, 330, 1862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamamoto, R.; Suzuki, M.; Sasaki, J. Potential harms of emergency department thoracotomy in patients with persistent cardiac arrest following trauma: A nationwide observational study. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 16042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atkins, K.; Schneider, A.; Gallaher, J.; Cairns, B.; Charles, A. Who benefits from resuscitative thoracotomies following penetrating trauma: The patient or the learner? Injury 2023, 54, 111033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodward, L.; Alsabri, M. Permissive Hypotension vs. Conventional Resuscitation in Patients With Trauma or Hemorrhagic Shock: A Review. Cureus 2021, 13, e16487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pohlman, T.H.; Fecher, A.M.; Arreola-Garcia, C. Optimizing transfusion strategies in damage control resuscitation: Current insights. J. Blood Med. 2018, 9, 117–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Giannoudi, M.; Harwood, P. Damage control resuscitation: Lessons learned. Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg. 2016, 42, 273–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clarke, R.; Dippenaar, E. Permissive hypotension compared to fluid therapy for the management of traumatic haemorrhage: A rapid review. Br. Paramed. J. 2022, 7, 34–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tobin, J.M.; Dutton, R.P.; Pittet, J.F.; Sharma, D. Hypotensive resuscitation in a head-injured multi-trauma patient. J. Crit. Care 2014, 29, 313.e1–313.e5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vishwanathan, K.; Chhajwani, S.; Gupta, A.; Vaishya, R. Evaluation and management of haemorrhagic shock in polytrauma: Clinical practice guidelines. J. Clin. Orthop. Trauma 2021, 13, 106–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, J.M.; Anosike, K.; Waseem, M. Permissive Hypotension. In StatPearls; StatPearls Publishing LLC: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2023. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558915/ (accessed on 2 January 2024).
- Watts, S.; Smith, J.E.; Gwyther, R.; Kirkman, E. Closed chest compressions reduce survival in an animal model of haemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2019, 140, 37–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeffcoach, D.R.; Gallegos, J.J.; Jesty, S.A.; Coan, P.N.; Chen, J.; Heidel, R.E.; Daley, B.J. Use of CPR in hemorrhagic shock, a dog model. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016, 81, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luna, G.K.; Pavlin, E.G.; Kirkman, T.; Copass, M.K.; Rice, C.L. Hemodynamic effects of external cardiac massage in trauma shock. J. Trauma 1989, 29, 1430–1433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alqudah, Z.; Nehme, Z.; Williams, B.; Oteir, A.; Bernard, S.; Smith, K. Impact of a trauma-focused resuscitation protocol on survival outcomes after traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: An interrupted time series analysis. Resuscitation 2021, 162, 104–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teran, F.; Centeno, C.; Lindqwister, A.L.; Hunckler, W.J.; Landis, W.P.; Moodie, K.L.; Shofer, F.S.; Abella, B.S.; Paradis, N.A. Epinephrine plus chest compressions is superior to epinephrine alone in a hypoxia-induced porcine model of pseudo-pulseless electrical activity. Resusc. Plus 2021, 6, 100110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Niemann, M.; Graef, F.; Hahn, F.; Schilling, E.C.; Maleitzke, T.; Tsitsilonis, S.; Stockle, U.; Mardian, S. Emergency thoracotomies in traumatic cardiac arrests following blunt trauma—Experiences from a German level I trauma center. Eur. J. Trauma Emerg. Surg. 2023, 49, 2177–2185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ben-Avi, R.; Sorkin, A.; Nadler, R.; Tsur, A.M.; Gelikas, S.; Chen, J.; Benov, A. Emergent exploratory thoracotomy with military casualties: Contemporary prehospital management and outcome (see editorial page 619). Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 2022, 24, 570–573. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Finocchiaro, G.; Radaelli, D.; D’Errico, S.; Papadakis, M.; Behr, E.R.; Sharma, S.; Westaby, J.; Sheppard, M.N. Sudden Cardiac Death Among Adolescents in the United Kingdom. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2023, 81, 1007–1017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kramer, E.B.; Serratosa, L.; Drezner, J.; Dvorak, J. Sudden cardiac arrest on the football field of play--highlights for sports medicine from the European Resuscitation Council 2015 Consensus Guidelines. Br. J. Sports Med. 2016, 50, 81–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peng, T.; Derry, L.T.; Yogeswaran, V.; Goldschlager, N.F. Commotio Cordis in 2023. Sports Med. 2023, 53, 1527–1536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sohail, S.; Naeem, A.; Basham, H.A.; Ashraf, A.; Bai, R.; Karim, A.; Faraz, M.; Malik, J.; Hayat, A. Commotio Cordis in Non-sports-related Injury: A Scoping Review. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 2023, 49, 102165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, Z.; Liang, J.J.; Wang, Z.; Winans, N.J.; Morris, M.; Doyle, S.; Fry, A.; Fiore, S.M.; Mofakham, S.; Mikell, C.B. Cardiac arrest after severe traumatic brain injury can be survivable with good outcomes. Trauma Surg. Acute Care Open 2021, 6, e000638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, M.H.; Hinds, J.; Grier, G.; Burns, B.; Carley, S.; Davies, G. Impact brain apnoea—A forgotten cause of cardiovascular collapse in trauma. Resuscitation 2016, 105, 52–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vianen, N.J.; Van Lieshout, E.M.M.; Vlasveld, K.H.A.; Maissan, I.M.; Gerritsen, P.C.; Den Hartog, D.; Verhofstad, M.H.J.; Van Vledder, M.G. Impact of Point-of-Care Ultrasound on Prehospital Decision Making by HEMS Physicians in Critically Ill and Injured Patients: A Prospective Cohort Study. Prehosp. Disaster Med. 2023, 38, 444–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Botker, M.T.; Jacobsen, L.; Rudolph, S.S.; Knudsen, L. The role of point of care ultrasound in prehospital critical care: A systematic review. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 2018, 26, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schellenberg, M.; Inaba, K. Critical Decisions in the Management of Thoracic Trauma. Emerg. Med. Clin. N. Am 2018, 36, 135–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Adami, E.A.; Poillucci, G.; Di Saverio, S.; Khan, M.; Fransvea, P.; Podda, M.; Rampini, A.; Marini, P. A critical appraisal of emergency resuscitative thoracotomy in a Western European level 1 trauma centre: A 13-year experience. Updates Surg. 2023, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hilbert-Carius, P.; Struck, M.F.; Rudolph, M.; Knapp, J.; Rognas, L.; Adler, J.; Slagt, C.; Jacobsen, L.; Pich, H.; Christian, M.D.; et al. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) practices in the helicopter emergency medical services in Europe: Results of an online survey. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg Med. 2021, 29, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ordoobadi, A.J.; Peters, G.A.; MacAllister, S.; Anderson, G.A.; Panchal, A.R.; Cash, R.E. Prehospital care for traumatic cardiac arrest in the US: A cross-sectional analysis and call for a national guideline. Resuscitation 2022, 179, 97–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Millin, M.G.; Galvagno, S.M.; Khandker, S.R.; Malki, A.; Bulger, E.M.; Standards and Clinical Practice Committee of the National Association of EMS Physicians (NAEMSP); the Subcommittee on Emergency Services–Prehospital of the American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma. Withholding and termination of resuscitation of adult cardiopulmonary arrest secondary to trauma: Resource document to the joint NAEMSP-ACSCOT position statements. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013, 75, 459–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamamoto, R.; Suzuki, M.; Hayashida, K.; Yoshizawa, J.; Sakurai, A.; Kitamura, N.; Tagami, T.; Nakada, T.A.; Takeda, M.; Sasaki, J.; et al. Epinephrine during resuscitation of traumatic cardiac arrest and increased mortality: A post hoc analysis of prospective observational study. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 2019, 27, 74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Schober, P.; Giannakopoulos, G.F.; Bulte, C.S.E.; Schwarte, L.A. Traumatic Cardiac Arrest—A Narrative Review. J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13, 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13020302
Schober P, Giannakopoulos GF, Bulte CSE, Schwarte LA. Traumatic Cardiac Arrest—A Narrative Review. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2024; 13(2):302. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13020302
Chicago/Turabian StyleSchober, Patrick, Georgios F. Giannakopoulos, Carolien S. E. Bulte, and Lothar A. Schwarte. 2024. "Traumatic Cardiac Arrest—A Narrative Review" Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 2: 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13020302