Nanotechnology as a Promising Approach to Combat Multidrug Resistant Bacteria: A Comprehensive Review and Future Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Development of Antibiotic Resistance
- 1.
- Production of inactivating enzymes: The bacterium produces particular enzymes that precisely inactivate the antibiotic, causing it to lose its biological function. For instance, when β-lactam drugs are digested by β-lactamases, this occurs. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs), which have the same inactivating activity, are produced by some bacteria, making them challenging to eradicate. The enzymes acetyltransferase, phosphotransferase, and adenyl transferase are additional ones that can render certain antibiotics inactive [66,67,68,69].
- 2.
- Changes and alterations in the antibiotic target: In the case of erythromycin resistance, for instance, methylation of an adenine residue in the peptidyl-transferase of r-RNA 23S reduces the enzyme’s affinity for the antibiotic without impairing protein synthesis. The alteration of penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) by MRSA is another significant instance [70].
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- Activation of alternative metabolic pathways: The sulfonamides case serves as an explanation. In fact, bacteria exposed to sulfonamides are still able to produce folic acid through a different metabolic pathway [77].
- 6.
- 7.
- Inactive metabolic state of microorganism: The metabolically inert bacterial subpopulations known as persister cells have a lower antibacterial susceptibility than active ones [79].
- 8.
3. Spread of MDR and XDR Bacteria
4. Types and Formulations of Nanoparticles
4.1. Organic NPs
4.2. Inorganic NPs
4.3. Hybrid NPs
5. Free Antibiotic VS Nanoantibiotic
6. Mechanisms of Action of Nanoparticles (NPs)
6.1. Destruction of Cell Wall and Cell Membrane
6.2. Production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
6.3. Binding to and Damaging Intracellular Component
6.4. Destruction of Biofilm Architecture
7. Synergistic Activity of Nanoantibiotics
7.1. Effect on Planktonic Bacteria
7.2. Effect on Intracellular Bacteria
7.3. Effect on Bacterial Biofilm
8. Strengths and Challenges in the Application of NPs against MDR Infection
9. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Hetta, H.F.; Ramadan, Y.N.; Al-Harbi, A.I.; A. Ahmed, E.; Battah, B.; Abd Ellah, N.H.; Zanetti, S.; Donadu, M.G. Nanotechnology as a Promising Approach to Combat Multidrug Resistant Bacteria: A Comprehensive Review and Future Perspectives. Biomedicines 2023, 11, 413. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020413
Hetta HF, Ramadan YN, Al-Harbi AI, A. Ahmed E, Battah B, Abd Ellah NH, Zanetti S, Donadu MG. Nanotechnology as a Promising Approach to Combat Multidrug Resistant Bacteria: A Comprehensive Review and Future Perspectives. Biomedicines. 2023; 11(2):413. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020413
Chicago/Turabian StyleHetta, Helal F., Yasmin N. Ramadan, Alhanouf I. Al-Harbi, Esraa A. Ahmed, Basem Battah, Noura H. Abd Ellah, Stefania Zanetti, and Matthew Gavino Donadu. 2023. "Nanotechnology as a Promising Approach to Combat Multidrug Resistant Bacteria: A Comprehensive Review and Future Perspectives" Biomedicines 11, no. 2: 413. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020413