Potential Environmental Reservoirs of Candida auris: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Source and Search Strategy
2.2. Eligibility Criteria
2.3. Data Extraction and Synthesis
2.4. Risk of Bias (ROB) Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Potential Natural Environmental Reservoirs
3.2. Potential Urban Non-Hospital Environmental Reservoirs
First Author and Year | Country | Time of the Year | Positive Type of Samples | Harvesting Method | Culture and Temperature | Genomic Amplification | Proteomic | Clade |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yadav, 2022 [40] | India | March–April 2020; June–July 2021 | Stored apples (epicarp) | Sterile Swabs Swept | Sabouraud dextrose with chloramphenicol and gentamicin, CHROMagar Candida, and Yeast nitrogen broth at 37 °C | Illumina Hiseq 4000 | MALDI-TOF MS | I |
Epicard homogenizes in saline | ||||||||
Yadav, 2023 [39] | India | - | Ear and skin of dogs | Swab samples | Yeast nitrogen broth with 10% NaCl at 37 °C for 4 days | Illumina HiSeq 4000 | MALDI-TOF MS | I |
Arora, 2021 [41] | India | February–March 2020 | Salt march soil and sandy beach sediment | 2 g sediment suspended in 8 mL of 0.85% NaCl | Sabouraud dextrose agar plates with chloramphenicol and gentamicin at 28 °C up to 7 days | Illumina Hiseq 4000 | MALDI-TOF MS | I |
Seawater from the sandy beach | filtered with 0.45 um filters in 50 mL sterile bottles | |||||||
Membrane biofilm | ||||||||
Escandón, 2022 [42] | Colombia | 2018 | Water from Estuaries | 100 mL of water from a depth of 30 cm | Salt Sabouraud Dextrose selective broth at 40 °C for 48 h | PCR | MALDI-TOF MS | - |
Irinyi, 2022 [43] | UK | 2019 | Skin of Lissotriron vulgaris and Triturus cristatus | Sterile Swabs | - | Illumina Miseq | - | - |
Spain | 2019 | Ear of dog | - | - | PCR | - | - | |
Kuwait | 2017–2018 | Airborne dust | Dust-laden filter paper from a high-volume air sampler | - | Illumina HiSeq 2500 | - | - | |
Republic of Korea | 2016 | Activated sludge | 50 mL of a sterilized conical tube | - | Illumina MiSeq | - | - | |
Barber, 2023 [44] | USA | June–September 2022 | Pelleted wastewater solids | - | - | qPCR | - | - |
Babler, 2023 [45] | USA | 2021–2022 | Wastewater from the central district plant | Sterile HDPE bottle containing 0.1 g sodium thiosulfate | CHROMagar at 42 °C for 48 h | qPCR | - | - |
Wastewater from sewer cleanout from the hospital | ||||||||
Ekowati, 2018 [46] | Netherlands | - | Water samples from two pools | Plastic containers | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar and Malt Extract Agar at 24 °C for 7 days | PCR | - | - |
First Author and Year | Country | Time of the Year | Sample Type | Sampling Method | Culture and Detection | Positive Samples/Total Samples Collected | Molecular Identification | Clade and Clinical Identical | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Katsiari, 2023 [13] | Greece | October 2020–January 2022 | Environmental screening process | - | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar at 35 °C and 42 °C | 3/NA | PCR MALDI-TOF | Clade I and identical sequences to clinical samples | Only beds and a side table near infected patients were positive. |
Tian, 2021 [47] | China | March 2018 | Environmental screening process | - | Yeast Extract–Peptone–Dextrose Medium at 37 °C for 16 h | 1/1 | Illumina NovaSeq platform MALDI-TOF | Clade III clade and clinically related | Only the bedrails of a patient infected were positive. |
Didik, 2023 [48] | Hong Kong | September–October 2022 | Frequently touched items of ward communal area returned air grilles and high-level supply air grilles. | Flexible pre-moistened sterile poly wipe sponge swabs | Sabouraud dextrose broth with 10% NaCl, chloramphenicol and colistin for 7 days at 40° | 32/249 | Illumina iSeq or MiSeq MALDI-TOF | Clade I | 29 positive samples were from frequently touched items and 3 from returned air grilles and supply air grilles. |
Alanio, 2022 [49] | France | January 2021 | Investigation of the environment after bio-cleaning (sodium hypochlorite and sporicide) | Sterile pre-moistened cotton swabs unloaded in water. | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar | 0/NA | qPCR | Clade I | Only the mattresses, bed fences, and trolleys of infected patients were positive. |
qPCR | NA/NA | ||||||||
Yadav, 2021 [50] | India | December 2019–May 2020 | Near each patient’s bed (bed railing, bed sheet, pillow, bedside trolly, floor, and air conditioner air wings), medical equipment (thermometer, B.P. cuffs, ECG clip and sucker, oxygen mask, and nebulizer), and portable devices (mobile, wheelchair, and intravenous pole). | Premoistened swabs | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar containing chloramphenicol and gentamicin at 37 °C for 48–72 h | 15/148 | Illumina Hiseq 4000 MALDI-TOF | Clade I and SNP difference Between 1–160 among clinical and environmental isolates. | Recovered from near-patient sites (floor, bed railing, bedside trollies, pillow, and bed sheet). It was also recovered from air conditioner air wings, a mobile phone, and two medical equipment: an oxygen mask and intravenous pole. |
Yeast nitrogen enrichment broth containing 10% NaCl and 2% mannitol as a carbon source, and vortexed and incubated at 37 °C for 72–96 h | |||||||||
Umamheshwari, 2021 [51] | India | December 2018–March 2019 | Beds, bed rails, bedside tables/cardiac tables, and nursing cart. | Sterile pre-moistened in saline cotton swabs | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates for 7 days at 37 °C | 2/46 | PCR VITEK 2 MALDI TOF MS | Clade I and >90% similarity between clinical and environmental isolates | Only the bed railings around an infected patient were positive |
Taori, 2019 [52] | UK | July 2016–February 2017 | High touch point areas | Sterile pre-moistened in saline cotton swabs | Brilliance Candida agar for 48 h at 37 °C | 2/48 | PCR VITEK 2 MALDI TOF MS | Clade I | Only the bed railings and dining trolleys around an infected patient were positive |
Biswal, 2017 [53] | India | January–March 2017 | Environmental sampling of surfaces of objects or fomites in ICU | Cotton swabs pre-moistened in saline | Sabouraud dextrose agar for 48 h at 37 °C | 24/304 | Sequencing of ITS and D1/D2 regions of ribosomal DNA MALDI TOF | - | Recovered from near-patient sites (beds) and medical equipment: expiratory end of the ventilator, ECG leads, cuffs blood pressure, and temperature probes. |
Ruiz-Gaitan, 2019 [54] | Spain | 2016–2018 | Patients’ environment (bed rails, table, infusion pumps, keyboards, and walls) after cleaning, faucets, benches, and reusable medical devices. | Cotton gauzes soaked in saline | Sabouraud dextrose broth with chloramphenicol at 35 °C for 72 h | 61/738 | Sequencing ITS VITEK MS IVD | - | Isolated from Blood pressure cuffs, patient tables, keyboards, infusion pumps |
Adams, 2018 [55] | USA (New York) | 2013–2017 | Environmental samples were collected from rooms belonging to infected patients on near-patient surfaces, equipment, and other objects. They were also collected from objects outside these rooms. | Sponge sticks with 45 mL of phosphate-buffered saline with 0.02% Tween 80 | Sponge suspension on different agar media or Sponge suspension in 5 mL of SDB-AS broth at 40 °C for 2 weeks | 62/781 | Real-time PCR MALDI-TOF | Clade I | Isolated from near-patient surfaces and other surfaces inside patients’ rooms, like floors, curtains, and others. It was also isolated from equipment outside these rooms, like vital sign machines, thermometers, and others. |
Real-time PCR | 19/781 (culture negative) | ||||||||
Al Maani, 2019 [56] | Oman | October 2018 | Collected from high touch areas and re-useable devices | Sterile swabs pre-moistened in sterile saline | Sabouraud dextrose agar and incubated at 37 °C for 48 h. | 2/140 | PCR MALDI-TOF MS | Clade I | Isolated from the ventilator end and trolley belonging to the patient’s rooms. |
Alfouzan, 2020 [57] | Kuwait | January 2018–2019 | Collected from infected patients’ rooms. | Swab samples | Sabouraud dextrose agar with gentamicin for 24–48 h at 37 °C | 7/261 | PCR VITEK 2 MALDI TOF MS | Clade I and genetically identical to clinical strains | Isolated from the Bedrail, bedside drawer, toilet flush handle, toilet faucet handle, and wall |
Kumar, 2019 [58] | USA | April–June 2017 | Patients’ room objects <3 feet from the patient, >3 feet away, and bathrooms. As well as portable medical equipment. | Sponge sticks pre-moistened with neutralizing buffer | Sabouraud dextrose agar and incubated at 37 °C for 96 h. | 8/204 | MALDI-TOF | - | Isolated from the Bedrail, bedside table, call button, and sink drain |
Ruiz-Gaitán, 2018 [59] | Spain | April 2016–January 2017 | Environmental surveillance on various surfaces and objects. | Cotton gauze moistened with saline | Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol For 72 h at 35 °C | - | PCR Vitek MS Ruo | - | Isolated from Beds, tables, floors, walls, keyboards blood pressure cuffs, and hemodialysis drains |
Escandón, 2019 [60] | Colombia | February 2015–August 2016 | Samples were collected from surfaces and objects belonging to four zones in patients’ rooms: zone 1 being near bed, zone 2 being infrequent patient contact, zone 3 with almost no contact, and zone 4 being bathrooms adjects to patients’ rooms. | 3M Sponge sticks and EnviroMax Plus swabs | Salt Sabouraud dextrose broth | 37/322 | Illumina Hiseq 2500 MALDI-TOF | Genetically identical to clinical strains | From zone 1 it was isolated from bedrails, cellular phones, hand controllers, and floors. From zone 2, chairs, bed trays, and medical equipment. From zone 3, closets, door handles, and alcohol gel dispensers, and zone 4 sink basins, bedpans, and mop buckets. |
Eyre, 2018 [61] | UK | November 2016–April 2017 | Environmental screening | Bacterial swabs in a liquid transport medium (Sigma Transwab) and sponges to sample larger surface areas (Polywipe) and Sabouraud dextrose agar contact plates | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar with chloramphenicol at 37 °C | NA/128 | Illumina miseq MALDI-TOF | Clade III and clinical and environmental samples were closely related. | Isolated from a pulse oximeter, temperature probes, and patient mobile hoist. |
Rhodes, 2018 [62] | UK | April 2015–November 2016 | Environmental screening of a room of a colonized patient. | - | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar at 35 °C for 18–48 h | 2/2 | Illumina hiseq 2500 MALDI-TOF | Clade I | Isolated from Beds and trolleys |
Lesho, 2018 [63] | USA | - | 3/132 (outside) | Sponge sticks and premoistened rayon-tipped swabs | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar with gentamycin and chloramphenicol 5 days | 3/ 132 | WGS MALDI-TOF | Clade I and genetically identical to clinical strains | Isolated from reclining chairs inside the patient room and sink outside the room. |
Naicker, 2021 [64] | South Africa | 2017 | Hight touch surfaces and objects and other surfaces in patient care are | Swab | Sabourad agar | 10/NA | WGS MALDI-TOF | Clade III and there were a maximum of 27 SNP differences between environmental to clinical strains. | Isolated from handwashing basin, bed linen, bed rails, window-sill, a curtain, drying rack, and the floor. |
Pacilli, 2020 [65] | USA | May 2016–December 2018 | Hight touch surfaces in patient care environments, multiuse patient care items, and mobile equipment. | 3M Sponge sticks with neutralizing buffer, homogenized in 40 mL of phosphate-buffered saline with 0.02% Tween 80 | CHROMagar Candida plates for 7 days | 73/191 | MALDI-TOF | - | Isolated from glucometers, temperature probes, mobile ultrasounds, pulse-oximeters, blood pressure cuffs, stethoscopes, over-bed tables, bedside chairs, nursing carts, doorknobs, bedrails, and windowsills |
Salah, 2021 [66] | Qatar | April 2018–November 2020 | Environmental screening | - | CHROMagar Candida for 5 days at 42 °C | - | Illumina NextSeq 550 or Illumina Miseq MALDI-TOF | Clade I and genetically identical to clinical isolates | Isolated from a bedside table, bed, couch, and cabinet inside patients’ rooms. |
Schelenz, 2016 [67] | UK | April 2015–July 2016 | Environmental screening of the area surrounding colonized patients | - | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates | - | MALDI-TOF | - | Isolated from the Floor around bedsites, trollies, radiators, windowsills, equipment monitors, keypads |
Sexton, 2021 [68] | USA (Chicago) | October 2018 | Environmental screening of patients’ rooms windowsills, doorknobs, and handrails. | 3M Sponge sticks with neutralizing buffer, homogenized in 40 mL of phosphate-buffered saline with 0.02% Tween 80 | CHROMagar Candida plates at 40 °C for 72 h | 50/100 | qPCR MALDI-TOF | - | Isolated from window, indoor knob, outdoor knob, left handrail and right handrail |
qPCR | 70/100 | ||||||||
Zhu, 2020 [69] | USA | 2016–2018 | Environmental sampling of porous and nonporous surfaces. | 3M sponge sticks, vortexed with 1 mL modified liquid amies medium | Sabouraud Dextrose Agar with chloramphenicol, gentamicin, penicillin and streptomycin, and Sabouraud ulcitol agar containing the above antibacterial with 10 salt | 109/3672 | PCR MALDI-TOF | Clade I | Isolated from near-patient environments (floors, beds, walls, etc.), from mobile medical equipment (lifter, blood pressure cuff, etc.), and outside rooms (computer keyboard). Degrees of colonization were significantly higher on nonporous than porous surfaces. |
PCR | 434/3672 | ||||||||
Patterson, 2021 [70] | UK | - | - | 3M Sponge sticks with neutralizing buffer | - | - | - | - | A patient’s bed space and staff lanyards were infected. |
3.3. Potential Hospital Environmental Reservoirs
3.4. Susceptibility of Natural and Hospital Environmental Samples
3.5. Risk of Bias—Quality Assessment
4. Discussion
4.1. Sampling and Detection
4.2. Potential Natural Environmental Reservoirs
4.3. Potential Urban Non-Hospital Environmental Reservoirs
4.4. Potential Hospital Environmental Reservoirs
4.5. Susceptibility and Phylogeny
4.6. Strategic Surveillance Approach
4.7. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Correction Statement
References
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First Author, Year | Gene Mutation | MIC (mg/L)/Phenotype | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CDR1 | TAC1B | ERG11 | FCZ | AmB | AND | ||
Natural Environment | Yadav, 2023 [39] | - | A640V (2/6) | K143R (2/6) | 32–128 | 0.25–0.5 | 0.01–0.06 |
Yadav, 2022 [40] | V704L (13/19) E709D (3/19) | - | K143R (13/19) Y132F (3/19) | 16–128 | 0.25 | - | |
Escadón, 2022 [42] | - | - | - | 2.0 | 0.5 | 0.25 | |
Arora, 2021 [41] | - | - | Y132F | 8–256 | 1–4 | 0.125 | |
Hospital Environment | Tian, 2021 [47] | - | - | VF125AL (I74L) | 256 | 1 | 0.5 |
Yadav, 2021 [50] | - | - | Y132F | 16–128 | 0.25–4 | 0.125–0.5 | |
Umamaheshwari, 2021 [51] | - | - | Y132F | 16–32 | 2 | 0.25–0.5 | |
Alfouzan, 2020 [57] | - | - | Y132F | R * | S ** | - | |
Al Maani, 2019 [56] | - | - | - | 8–16 | 1–2 | 0.031 | |
Escadón, 2019 [60] | - | - | - | 2–64 | 0.38–4 | 0.03–0.125 | |
Zhu, 2019 [69] | - | - | - | 8–256 | 0.25–3.0 | 0.08–1 | |
Lesho, 2018 [63] | - | - | K143R (1/1) | - | - |
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Silva, I.; Miranda, I.M.; Costa-de-Oliveira, S. Potential Environmental Reservoirs of Candida auris: A Systematic Review. J. Fungi 2024, 10, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10050336
Silva I, Miranda IM, Costa-de-Oliveira S. Potential Environmental Reservoirs of Candida auris: A Systematic Review. Journal of Fungi. 2024; 10(5):336. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10050336
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva, Isabel, Isabel M. Miranda, and Sofia Costa-de-Oliveira. 2024. "Potential Environmental Reservoirs of Candida auris: A Systematic Review" Journal of Fungi 10, no. 5: 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10050336