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Article

Terroir in View of Bibliometrics

by
Christos Stefanis
1,*,
Elpida Giorgi
1,
Giorgios Tselemponis
1,
Chrysa Voidarou
2,
Ioannis Skoufos
3,
Athina Tzora
2,
Christina Tsigalou
1,
Yiannis Kourkoutas
4,
Theodoros C. Constantinidis
1 and
Eugenia Bezirtzoglou
1
1
Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Department of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
2
Laboratory of Animal Health, Food Hygiene and Quality, Department of Agriculture, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece
3
Laboratory of Animal Science, Nutrition and Biotechnology, School of Agriculture, University of Ioannina, 47100 Arta, Greece
4
Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Stats 2023, 6(4), 956-979; https://doi.org/10.3390/stats6040060
Submission received: 4 August 2023 / Revised: 24 September 2023 / Accepted: 25 September 2023 / Published: 27 September 2023
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Abstract

:
This study aimed to perform a bibliometric analysis of terroir and explore its conceptual horizons. Advancements in terroir research until 2022 were investigated using the Scopus database, R, and VOSviewer. Out of the 907 results, the most prevalent document types were articles (771) and reviews (70). The annual growth rate of published manuscripts in this field was 7.8%. The research on terroir encompassed a wide range of disciplines, with significant contributions from Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Social Sciences, Environmental Science, Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology. Through keyword analysis, the study identified the most frequently occurring terms in titles, abstracts, and keywords fields, including ‘terroir’, ‘wine’, ‘soil’, ‘wines’, ‘grape’, ‘analysis’, ‘vineyard’, ‘composition’, and ‘climate’. A trend topic analysis revealed that research in terroir primarily focused on the geo-ecology and physiology of grapes. Furthermore, considerable attention was given to methods and techniques related to the physicochemical, sensory, and microbial characterization of terroir and various aspects of the wine industry. Initially, the research in this domain was focused on terroir, authenticity, grapevine, soils, soil moisture, and wine quality. However, over time, the research agenda expanded to include topics such as food analysis, viticulture, wine, taste, sustainability, and climate change. New research areas emerged, including phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, phenols, sensory analysis, and precision agriculture—all of which became integral components of the scientific studies on terroir. Overall, this study provided valuable insights into the historical trends and current developments in terroir research, contributing to our understanding of the frontiers in this field.

1. Introduction

One definition of terroir is suggested by the International Organization of Vine and Wine [1]: “terroir is a concept that refers to an area in which collective knowledge of the interactions between the identifiable physical and biological environment and applied viticultural and enological practices develops, providing distinctive characteristics for the products originating from this area. Terroir includes specific soil, topography, climate, landscape characteristics, and biodiversity features”.
The concept of terroir originated in France during the mid-19th century, primarily in the context of wine production. It described the special connection between wine and the specific land where it was produced. Over time, the definition of terroir has expanded, and it is now used to establish a link between any agricultural product and its place of origin. This broader understanding acknowledges that the unique characteristics of a product are influenced by the specific environmental and cultural factors of its production region [2]. Terroir is closely tied to the bio- and geo-ecology of a particular region and the production of a specific agricultural product. It provides the basis for legal frameworks governing geographical indications, which are designations that protect and certify the origin and quality of certain products.
To understand terroir’s definition and conceptual framework, we should refer to the many factors and relationships that develop between them. Wine terroir is the performance potential of an area, consisting of the soil, the climate at various levels, the micro and meso-climate, the variety of grapes, the microbial flora, and the microbial communities that grow in this environment. In addition, essential factors in the growth of vines are the soil, the region, and traditional and modern agronomical practices. Combining the above dynamics will ultimately give the final product—the wine—a specific identity. Thus, the terroir is the unique imprint that the wine has. Of course, different relationships of the properties of each factor contribute to terroir. For example, the biodiversity of yeasts, which are present in the vine and the microbial consortia hosted in the field; the formation of these communities; the properties of the cultivated soil; the unique agronomic techniques; and the weather phenomena are difficult to clearly recognize in the formation of terroir (Figure 1) [3,4,5,6].
Geographical indications consider factors such as local conditions, traditional production methods, and agronomic practices that contribute to the distinctiveness of these products. Therefore, the specific locality of these products is a defining aspect that sets them apart and gives them their unique qualities. In summary, while terroir initially emerged concerning wine and its connection to the land, it now extends to other agricultural products. It encompasses a region’s bio- and geo-ecological aspects and serves as the foundation for geographical indications, highlighting the particular characteristics associated with specific places of origin [7]. Terroir’s link to the bio and geo-ecology of a region serves as the basis for establishing geographical indications, which incorporate specific local conditions, traditional production methods, and agronomic practices. These geographical indications provide legal protection and contribute to the uniqueness of these products. The locality of the products plays a vital role in defining their distinct characteristics [8]. From a scientific perspective, terroir has gained significant importance due to its implications in agronomy and economics.
Understanding the quality and characteristics of wine influenced by terroir can be a complex task. Terroir plays a role in shaping the fermentation process and sensory attributes of wine. Efforts have been made to establish connections between specific organoleptic characteristics—represented by chemical compounds such as phenols—and factors such as grape variety and the microflora of yeast influenced by the unique geo-ecological landscape [9,10,11].
The presence and diversity of yeasts have emerged as a significant area of research within the field of terroir. That is due to yeasts’ vital role in the winemaking process and their contribution to the organoleptic and quality characteristics of wines. However, understanding the relationships and factors that shape this yeast diversity in a vineyard involves considering the soil, other microbial communities, and the microclimate of a specific terroir. The total identification of a specific yeast profile uniquely associated with a particular terroir from the vineyard to the grape all the way to the final bottle of wine remains a topic of debate, and research in this area has provided diverse perspectives [12,13,14,15].
This study aimed to analyze the properties, evolution, dynamics, and interrelationships of the scientific concept of terroir, as well as the impact of climate parameters and agronomical practices. The Scopus database was used to explore the literature on terroir and map the research frontiers and trends using bibliometric techniques. This study is the first to conduct a bibliometric analysis of terroir using the Scopus database.
The research questions addressed in this study are as follows:
  • What revisions have occurred in the literature on terroir?
  • Which research articles, authors, and manuscripts have had the most influence in terroir based on publications in Scopus?
  • What are the most important topics discussed in the research field of terroir?
By answering these research questions, this study contributes to the scientific literature by providing an overview of research production on terroir. The analysis covers the period up to the present literature, providing an update on scientific research in this field. The study utilizes bibliometric indicators and visualizations to assess the trends and frontiers in terroir research.
Furthermore, the bibliometric analysis aims to identify the disciplines involved in terroir research, track the emergence and evolution of different topics over time, and highlight the primary research paths, achievements, challenges, and trending issues in the field of terroir.

2. Materials and Methods

The bibliometric approach used in this paper utilized the Scopus database for conducting the research. Scopus is a comprehensive scholarly database containing 1.7 billion cited references. It covers various subjects, including social, life, health, and physical sciences. Scopus includes approximately 2500 serial titles from around 7000 publishers. One of the advantages of using the Scopus database is its user-friendly navigation menu, which allows researchers to easily explore and access relevant literature. It also offers flexibility in research fields, enabling users to refine their searches based on specific subject areas. The Scopus database incorporates a mechanism for analyzing bibliographic data. This mechanism involves using Boolean Syntax, which allows researchers to retrieve documents by combining keywords using various Boolean operators. Using Boolean Syntax, researchers can construct complex search queries and narrow their results to specific criteria [16,17,18,19].
Additionally, the Scopus database provides document indexing operations, which help organize and categorize the documents based on their subject matter. This indexing process enhances the searching and discovery of documents within the database. The Scopus database offers researchers a valuable resource for bibliometric analysis, providing a wide range of scholarly literature, robust data retrieval, and analysis tools [20].
After the application of various combinations, the word “terroir” was used, with a time range from the initial date of Scopus to 31 December 2022 and with language selection in English and the following search details: TITLE-ABS-KEY (terroir) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBSTAGE, “aip”)) AND (EXCLUDE (PUBYEAR, 2023)) AND (EXCLUDE (DOCTYPE, “ch”) OR EXCLUDE (DOCTYPE, “bk”)) AND (EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “French”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Spanish”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Portuguese”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Italian”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “German”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Chinese”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Russian”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Croatian”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Czech”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Hungarian”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Swedish”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “catalan”) OR EXCLUDE (LANGUAGE, “Undefined”)).
Three types of manuscripts were included: research documents, reviews, and manuscripts from conference proceedings. Moreover, the manuscripts obtained were catalogued by year, subject area, document type, and institutional affiliation in the Microsoft Excel program. A visual depiction of Keywords Plus was also covered in this bibliometric research, and word trends of Keywords Plus are specifically illustrated. The VOSviewer bibliometric program was applied to visualize the results and create a bibliographic map.
We performed a co-authorship analysis using the full counting method, assigning the same weight to each co-authorship link. This method was further applied in the co-occurrence analysis of the keywords in the manuscripts’ titles, abstracts, and text fields. The bibliometric analysis was developed with VOSviewer and R package Bibliometrix/web biblioshiny by executing the following steps: research criteria; study questions; analysis approach selection (the year, subject area, document type, institutional affiliation, keyword analysis, network of authors, and research evolution); bibliometric data selection and analysis with the software mentioned earlier; generating networks; visualization figures; and an interpretation of the results [20,21] (Figure 2).
VOSviewer (https://www.vosviewer.com/; accessed on 15 May 2023) and bibliometrix are potent tools for bibliometric analysis and visualization, helping researchers gain valuable insights from scholarly literature and citation networks. VOSviewer stands out as an accessible software solution that aids in the creation and presentation of bibliometric charts and networks. It proves especially handy when dealing with extensive collections of academic papers, patents, or other text-based data. VOSviewer empowers researchers to unveil concealed trends, connections, and insights within their datasets. Notable VOSviewer features include network visualization, keyword co-occurrence, citation, and cluster analysis. Moreover, the software enables users to tailor visualizations to their specific requirements, allowing for the adjusting of color schemes and other parameters.
Bibliometrix (https://www.bibliometrix.org/home/; accessed on 15 May 2023) comes into play as an R package delivering advanced bibliometric analysis tools within the R programming environment. R, renowned for its statistical analysis and data visualization capabilities, finds an ideal companion in Bibliometrix for bibliometric research tasks. The noteworthy functions of Bibliometrix include bibliometric indicators, data cleaning and preprocessing, co-authorship analysis, and keyword analysis.
By combining the strengths of VOSviewer and Bibliometrix, researchers can conduct comprehensive bibliometric analyses, encompassing data preparation, advanced statistical assessments, and interactive visualization. These tools are invaluable for data-driven decision-making in academic research, funding allocation, and strategic planning in research institutions [22,23,24].

3. Results

Most documents were research articles (771) and reviews (70), the most common document types. This research revealed that conference papers published for “terroir” were 66 of the 907 manuscripts in total (Table 1).
Supplementary information on the data is disclosed in Table 1. It includes, among others, the number of sources (417), the average citations per document (23.21%), the number of single-authored manuscripts (179), the number of co-authors per document (4), and the percentage of international co-authorships (24.7%).
The top five institutions that published research documents for the abovementioned keywords were also documented. The Université de Bordeaux and the Institut National De La Recherche Agronomique were the most productive institutions, followed by Brock University, Stellenbosch University, and the University of California (Davis). Moreover, one European country has two representatives—France—while Canada, the USA, and South Africa have only one university in the respective list (Table 1).
Figure 3 depicts the annual production of manuscripts. The number of published manuscripts represents a reasonable estimation of the trends in a specific research domain.
Publications were categorized by year, uncovering the fact that the first manuscript appeared in 1961; however, exponential growth in the produced articles was seen after 2004 (Figure 3). The highest number of manuscripts (111) was published in 2021. The annual growth rate was 7.8%. Furthermore, the yearly publication graph shows that researchers started paying attention to terroir in 2005, the year that first recorded a double-digit number of published documents. Scientific interest is evident, because there has been an exponential increase in published documents since 2005.
The top five most cited articles referring to terroir are listed in Table 2. The highest citation number was 626 for the manuscript “Microbial biogeography of wine grapes is conditioned by cultivar, vintage, and climate”. This document received the most outstanding scientific attention. It was published in 2014 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America [13]. The top five highly cited papers were published in various journals from 2001 to 2014.
The first most cited manuscripts manifest the linkage between cultivar, vintage, climate, and the harboring microbial consortium. The environmental conditions that shape, influence, and compose the microbial biodiversity also reflect the terroir development patterns in each region; thus, the quality characteristics of wine are also differentiated. The microbial biodiversity of each region is formed based on non-random conditions and depends on the climatic conditions and the variety of wine grapes. Exploiting and fully elucidating this relationship between the area and microbial communities will provide more information on the exclusive relationship between winemaking grapes, microbial population, region, soil-climatic parameters and wine as the final product [13].
The documents that will be explored discuss three essential terroir composition and evolution components: soil, climate, and cultivar. One of the conclusions of the second most cited article is that the three factors mentioned above do not equally form the character of the terroir. The soil and climatic conditions play a slightly more significant role than the quality characteristics of each wine grape variety [25].
Subsequent documents highlight the potential capabilities of the agrifood sector regarding the specific exceptional characteristics and properties of such products. The geographical indication of such products can play a crucial role in a country’s economic orientation and politics and enhance agricultural politics through new labelling approaches linking local to global trade. The conceptual structure regarding issues of definition and debate on “local” and food production is raised as a topic of discussion in the following article. In the same concept, socio-economic conditions, community, and place are defined and put into the general focus of the discussion of the value of local food production [26,27].
The last document of the five most cited records in this bibliometric analysis reveals and illustrates the role of human actions; natural environments like micro-, meso- and topo-climate; soil properties; grapevine variety; and agronomical practices in viticulture in terroir formation and expression. At the same time, the outcome of these interactions may interpret wine quality characteristics [28].
The list of the ten most productive countries includes countries from three continents, while the absence of research manuscripts was noted in Asia, Africa, and South America. In total, Europe had 487 documents, namely from the following countries: France (163), Italy (134), Spain (77), Portugal (46), the United Kingdom (34), and Germany (33) (Figure 4).
The USA (172) and Canada (57) represented North America with 229 records, while Australia (67) and New Zealand (32) represented Oceania. Figure 4 highlights the ten most productive countries that published documents in the research landscape of terroir.
The list of the most productive countries regarding their research performance in terroir partially coincides with the list of the most productive countries in wine production and their respective profits (Table 3).
China, Argentina, Chile, and South Africa are in the top ten wine producers, while these countries are not listed in the separate list with the most published documents. In addition, new countries are included in the list, like Greece, Cyprus, Switzerland, Croatia, and Romania, when considering table wine production in a million euro profit.
In the current bibliometric approach, some countries lagged in wine production even though they were on the list of high research production in absolute numbers of documents, such as New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Thus, diversification was observed in the research fingerprint of terroir and wine production between countries. Terroir research can focus on various technological innovations, and research directions can interpret the identified research pattern.
Global collaborations, networks, and research streams among countries are depicted in Figure 5. The specific network represents a clustered network of countries’ collaborations. The thickness of the lines is proportional to the number of collaborations among countries. Moreover, collaboration between two countries originated from the co-authorship summation from two countries. Therefore, the network node size is proportional to the number of publications in that country. In addition, the number of countries displayed in the network is 35. In the current bibliometric analyses, single-authored documents equaled 179, and co-authors per manuscript came to four, while international co-authorships reached 24.7%.
Collaboration metrics and indicators such as co-authorship analysis of countries, institutions, and authors are central to any bibliographic approach. These metrics illustrate and identify models representing international collaboration’s scientific impact and prestige. However, decoding and exemplifying collaboration metrics is challenging, and additional metrics should also be examined to create a visualization map of any collaboration networks [29,30].
Four of the five identified clusters comprise countries from at least two continents. The first cluster is dominated by France, the USA, and Italy (red cluster). Canada, Brazil, South Africa, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, Turkey, Japan, Sweden, and Algeria also belong to this cluster. The second cluster (blue color) includes Spain, Australia, Portugal, China, New Zealand, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Chile. The green cluster encompasses only two countries: Argentina and Denmark. The purple cluster has ten countries: Greece, Hungary, Israel, Slovenia, Romania, Norway, Serbia, the Netherlands, Poland, and Croatia. Only two countries, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, existed in the fifth cluster (orange). The orange and purple cluster had almost exclusively European countries.
In particular, the USA, Italy, and France—the major contributors of the red cluster—assigned research endeavors to chemistry, life, and environmental sciences from 1 January 2022 to 31 December 2022, as shown in the index created by Nature about countries’ collaboration (https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/collaboration-graph/; accessed on 1 June 2023). Under the Scimago Journal & Country Rank regarding country comparisons, it was appropriate to consider additional metrics for collaboration and international research initiatives stemming from these countries. Thus, the USA had the biggest h-index, 965k, followed by France (h-index 520) and Italy (h-index 389). Considering the percentage of international collaboration, France was the leading country (72.47%) in 2022, followed by Italy (52.63%) and the USA (52.62%). Since 1996, all of these countries have increased their collaboration networks and international research flows (https://www.scimagojr.com/comparecountries.php?ids[]=fr&ids[]=it&ids[]=us&area=1100; accessed on 1 June 2023).
Figure 6 and Figure 7 illustrate the number of documents that combined the subject area of terroir and relevant sources.
Terroir has become a research theme that reflects interdisciplinarity. Topics related to terroir are cited beyond agricultural and biological sciences. More than 25 subject areas cover this scientific domain. The most retrieved manuscripts belonged to Agricultural and Biological Sciences (31.12%) and Social Sciences (16%). The remaining subjects have one-digit numbers: Environmental Science, 7%; Earth and Planetary Sciences, 7%; Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology, 7%; Immunology and Microbiology, 6%; and Biochemistry, Management, and Accounting, 6%. Finally, the last subject areas reached 4%: Chemistry, Medicine, Arts, and the Humanities. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 7, terroir is linked to Viticulture and Enology, as well as Horticulture and Microbiology.
Considering the ten most relevant sources, all the respective scientific journals published a double-digit number of articles, including OENO One, 28; Acta Horticulturae, 26; Frontiers in Microbiology, 24; and Journal International Des Sciences De La Vigne Et Du Vin, 23. The list of the most relevant journals also included the American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 20; the Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 20; the Journal of Wine Research, 18; Food Research International, 13; E3S Web of Conferences, 13; and Food Chemistry, 13. The scientific journals above have a high impact and cover various multidisciplinary research topics. In particular, the lowest citation score was 0.5 (2022) for Acta Horticulturae, and the highest was 9.2 (2022) for Food Chemistry. The many research areas of these sources include seeds and postharvest technologies, vine ecophysiology, oenology and viticulture, wine chemistry, sensory science, process engineering, wine quality assessments, microbiology, botany, economics, geography, and international wine trade.
The following figure depicts the word clouds of the 50 most frequent keywords in the abstract, title, and keyword manuscript fields (Figure 8).
The word clouds above show that the most frequent keywords occurred more than ten times in titles, abstracts, and keywords. There was a high level of similarity among the most frequent words: terroir and wine dominate the clouds. “Soil”, “wines”, “grape”, “analysis”, “vineyard”, “composition”, and “climate” were also words that appeared in the collected manuscripts. As expected, the search keyword “terroir” prevailed in the word clouds. Moreover, the stemming terms of various keywords in the fields, title, abstract, keywords, or its derivatives occurred in Figure 8.
The word clouds displayed above visually represent the most frequently occurring keywords within titles, abstracts, and keywords of the collected manuscripts. These word clouds serve as a valuable tool for distilling the essence of the research corpus, revealing patterns and themes that emerge from the text data.
One striking observation from the word clouds is the remarkable prominence of specific keywords, which appear with a frequency surpassing ten times. Among these standout terms, “terroir” and “wine” are the most frequent. Their recurring presence underscores their pivotal roles within the subject matter under investigation. The prevalence of “terroir” indicates a keen interest in understanding how the unique combination of soil, climate, and other environmental factors shapes the distinct qualities of wines—a topic of undeniable significance in viticulture and oenology.
However, the richness of the word clouds extends beyond the dominance of “terroir” and “wine”. Several other keywords emerge as significant contributors to the discourse. Notably, terms like “soil”, “wines”, “grape”, “analysis”, “vineyard”, “composition”, and “climate” all make frequent appearances within the word clouds. Each of these keywords plays a vital role in comprehensively exploring the subject matter. “Soil” points to the critical influence of earth composition on grapevine growth and grape quality, while “analysis” suggests a rigorous scientific approach to understanding terroir complexities. “Grape” and “vineyard” naturally feature prominently, given their central roles in the production of wine.
Moreover, “composition” hints at the extensive study of wines’ chemical and sensory attributes, which is essential in deciphering the intricate flavors and aromas associated with different terroirs. Lastly, “climate” underscores the recognition that a region’s weather and atmospheric conditions contribute significantly to the terroir and, consequently, the character of the wines produced there.
In essence, the word clouds serve as a visual testament to the thematic richness and interdisciplinary nature of the research collected. While “terroir” may reign supreme as the overarching keyword, the multifaceted exploration of this concept is evident through various complementary terms. Together, these keywords provide a comprehensive snapshot of terroir’s prevailing interests, focal points, and areas of inquiry.
By selecting keywords, one can reveal primary research issues and trends. As a result of the trend topic analysis, it was observed that the research on terroir mainly focused on the geoecology and physiology of grapes; on methods and techniques regarding physicochemical, sensory, and microbial characterization; and on all the domains engaged with wine. In recent years, terms like “Germany, China and coupled plasma mass spectrometry” have been entered and used in the keyword field of published manuscripts in terroir studies (Figure 9).
Figure 10 presents a visual representation of the network of authors, total link strength, and document count based on bibliographic coupling. The underlying concept of bibliographic coupling involves identifying shared citations among manuscripts to establish connections and create a network encompassing authors, manuscripts, universities, and countries. It serves as a measure of intellectual relatedness and reveals similarities between documents, authors, institutions, or countries [20,21,31,32,33].
Furthermore, in this visualization, when two documents refer to the same third document, they share a standard connection and should be grouped on a visual map. The size of each node in the network, representing an author, reflects their level of productivity. The proximity of nodes indicates the degree of relevance between the subjects they explore. The thickness of the lines connecting the nodes illustrates the strength of bibliographic coupling between the authors [20,21,33].
Establishing scientific connections among authors and promoting international collaboration brings mutual benefits, including enhanced productivity for authors, increased global impact for institutions, and improved scientific positioning for countries. Involving international authors and diversifying affiliations in research papers can elevate authors’ scientific impact, raise their visibility and recognition in publications, and enhance their scientific prestige [34].
A requirement of a minimum of five published documents per author was imposed. As a result, only 35 out of 2798 authors met this criterion and are included in the visualization network. Specifically, the network illustrates seven clusters. Two authors in orange represent cluster 7. Cluster 6 consists of four authors in light blue, cluster 5 comprises four in purple, and cluster 4—four authors in yellow. Cluster 3, depicted in blue, comprises six authors, while the green and red clusters comprise six and nine authors.
Cornélis Van Leeuwen (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=55129097500&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023) is the most prominent author in the bibliographic network, with a total link strength of 5995 and 20 published documents. His research interests primarily revolve around wine, viticulture, and life-cycle inventory. He has an h-index of 42. Jacobus Johannes Hunter (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=7403251617&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023), belonging to the orange cluster, has an h-index of 14 and focuses on Vitis and grapes in his research topics.
Alain J. Deloire (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6603570275&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023) ranks highest in the light blue cluster and has an h-index of 26. His research primarily centers around wine, winemaking, and related subjects. Andrew G. Reynolds (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=7201478324&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023), a member of the purple cluster, has an h-index of 35 and is actively involved in scientific research related to enzymes and fermentations. J. A. Amorós (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=55226137600&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023), with an h-index of 13 and a total link strength of 1676, primarily focuses on fruit, grapes, and Vitis in his research. Giuliano E. Pereira (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=8930319200&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName; accessed on 1 June 2023), part of the blue cluster, has seven documents and an h-index of 22. His primary research interests lie in red wines, winemaking, and anthocyanin. Sarah K. Bowen (https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=24466288600&origin=resultsAnalyzer&zone=authorName#tab=topics; accessed on 1 June 2023), with an h-index of 18, is the most influential author in the red cluster, boasting a total link strength of 232. Her research topics include local food systems, urban agriculture, and food processing.
The visualization map in Figure 11 displays the co-occurrence network of keywords. This representation is derived from 5118 terms extracted from the selected manuscripts’ titles, keywords, and abstracts. Only terms with a minimum occurrence of 20 were included to ensure relevance, resulting in 42 terms meeting the threshold. The map classifies these terms into four distinct clusters, each with a different color.
The color assigned to an item in the visualization map corresponds to its cluster affiliation. Additionally, the proximity of two items on the map indicates a more substantial level of relatedness between them. In Figure 11, the representation highlights the four clusters with the highest occurrence scores. Among these clusters, the red cluster features the term “terroir” as its key item, emphasizing its importance as a search term. Similarly, the green, blue, and yellow clusters are associated with the terms “grape”, “chemistry”, and “climate”, respectively, all of which have notable occurrences: 60, 54, and 47, as indicated in Figure 11.
In Table 4, an analytical description of the correspondence terms is provided as follows:
  • The red cluster comprises 15 terms primarily related to agriculture, climate change, sustainability, and the wine industry. It includes terms associated with countries known for their wine production, such as Italy and France.
  • The green cluster focuses on winemaking’s microbiological, genetic, and biotechnological aspects. Key terms in this cluster include yeasts, fermentation, genetics, microbial diversity, microbiology, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
  • The blue cluster highlights the significance of grape physiology and its physicochemical characteristics in shaping the sensory properties of wine. Terms such as anthocyanins, chemistry, mass spectrometry, metabolomics, phenols, sensory analysis, and taste are representative of this cluster.
  • The presence of terms like climate, fruit, grapevine, soil, Vitaceae, Vitis, and Vitis vinifera in the yellow cluster indicates a focus on various aspects of Vitis cultivation and the interrelationships between soil properties, climate, and grapevine production within the concept of terroir.
Overall, Table 4 provides a comprehensive overview of the different clusters and their related terms, highlighting the wine industry’s critical research and focus areas.
Figure 12 depicts a visualization of the selected keywords and the evolution of research using the VOS viewer’s total link strength. The figure also highlights the research trends from 2013 to 2022, focusing on the last ten years.
Indeed, the research agenda in the field of terroir has evolved and expanded over the years, encompassing a wide range of topics beyond the initial focus on terroir, authenticity, grapevine, anthocyanins, soils, soil moisture, and wine quality. The expansion of research topics reflects the growing interest in and recognition of the multidimensional nature of terroir and its implications for various aspects of viticulture, winemaking, and wine quality. Concurrently, new research topics emerged, including phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, vine, Vitaceae, phenols, sensory analysis, precision viticulture, and Vitis vinifera, all of which became part of the scientific studies related to terroir.
Furthermore, new methods and techniques entered the research field towards the end of the last decade and the beginning of 2020. These included metabolomics, mass spectrometry, microbiome, microbial community, GIS, and concepts like geographical indications, climate change, and genetics. These advancements expanded the research frontiers of terroir and contributed to a deeper understanding of the subject.

4. Discussion

Terroir is a French word steaming from terre, which means “land or terrain”, and it is associated with specific environmental and ecological conditions like soil and microflora in a particular place, influencing crop production and quality characteristics [26] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terroir; accessed on 1 June 2023). The appearance of the first two articles in the bibliographic search shows that terroir is exclusively connected with the land and its agronomical statutes. It also shows the conceptual evolution of its definition over time, where terroir includes more concepts and interpretations now [35,36].
The analysis of the keywords yielded four groups in the bibliometric map. Also, similar keywords appear in various groups, showing the complexity of terroir and the difficulty of interpreting it with monothematic approaches. The yellow cluster refers to soil properties and viticulture. The cultivation of vines is greatly influenced by agronomic practices, which in turn are influenced by the terroir. Irrigation conditions, for example, impact the physicochemical properties of grapes and the resulting wine production. Soil and climatic conditions, especially during the flowering period, play a crucial role in determining the irrigation techniques that maximize the content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in grapes and are used in authenticity evaluations [37,38,39].
The anthocyanin profiles of wines, together with principal component analysis, are present in the literature for the reorganization of geographical identification protocols [40]. Principal component analysis was clustered together with anthocyanins in the same group in the bibliographic network. In the same cluster, sensory attributes were documented, as well as descriptors of wine authenticity and typicity [41].
Various physicochemical properties of vines are influenced by factors such as the soil content of phosphorus and potassium, cultivation depth, available water, and nitrogen content in leaves [39]. The heterogeneity of these properties is affected by the soil’s water-holding capacity, structure, seasonal humidity, and rainfall, all of which have implications for viticultural agronomy and wine attributes [42,43,44,45].
The relationship between soil and viticulture is evident in co-occurrence analyses (Table 4) and the abstract and keyword fields (Figure 8). In this vein, the soil interacts with vine phenology and significantly impacts mineral and water availability, nitrogen supply, and temperature regulation in the root zone, particularly in the top 20 cm of soil [46,47,48].
When examining one terroir factor, such as soil, it becomes clear that its properties are intertwined with other factors. For instance, the properties of the soil that affect vineyard yield are also influenced by the vineyard’s topography, which in turn affects the extent to which climatic conditions influence vineyard development and grape characteristics. The specific microclimate, shaped by the unique topography, can impact the final product by influencing the volatile and non-volatile metabolites that contribute to the wine’s aroma and flavor. Soil properties and environmental factors also affect the composition of free grape juice amino acids and fermentation dynamics [49,50,51,52]. Overall, the soil factor remains an important area of focus, particularly in understanding the interrelationships between the microbial and yeast communities present in the soil at different spatial and temporal levels and their implications for wine quality [53].
Interpreting the green cluster of co-occurrence analysis and considering the terms of word topics, one of the terroir’s critical descriptors is the microbial, fungal, and yeast biodiversity in the field and the grapes. The microbial diversity of the soil horizon and the vine further influences fermentation processes and, ultimately, wine. Therefore, soil microbes are associated with soil properties, soil and plant diseases, crop physiology, and nutrient availability [54]. Characterizing the soil microbial diversity is complex since edaphic and plant conditions change over time and space. The dynamic profile of the soil microbiome is mainly formulated in the soil-rhizosphere part of the field. Various fluctuations of microbial species are present with a direct linkage to soil depth, agronomical practices and Vitis age. Spatial discrepancies in different scales evolve various microbial and fungal niches in the soil and the grape, contributing to various levels of plant health, hence Vitis resilience and farm sustainability [55,56,57,58]. In addition, the fungal and microbial communities in soil and various parts of the grape and the vineyard that are identified through omics methods justified and verified the vital microbiome component of terroir [59].
The spatial heterogeneity of vineyards’ soils, climate, and cultivation techniques dictate phylogenetic diversity, especially in long-term cultivated soils. Dissimilarities among microbial taxa exist between inter and intra-vineyard levels [60]. Biotic and abiotic factors like soil pH, organic matter, phosphorus, and farming methods shape microbial and fungal diversity, with Proteobacteria and Ascomycota being the most abundant [58,59]. The most common fungal communities identified in a study examining vineyards in Italy were Naganishia globose and Cladosporium spp. (C. ramotenellium, C. cladosporoides), Aureobasidium pullulans, Filobasidium magnum, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, Starmerella bacillaris, and Paraconiothyrium sp. The same research confirmed that organic farms harbor richer yeast and fungal biodiversity than conventional vineyards [61,62,63,64].
The fungal consortium of must and fermented samples originated from six Chinese regions comprising Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucoromycota. Aureobasidium, Alternaria, and Cladosporium were the dominant fungal genera in must. The same research confirmed a geographical and fungal abundance linkage leading to a specific bio-geographical model [65]. This unique pattern of biographical factors can be the formulated power not only for the microbial and fungal community but also for the yeast diversity on a local scale, carrying the regional profile to wine quality characteristics, as indicated in a study concerning the exploration of yeast communities in Greece [66].
Along the same lines, soil and grape microbiomes may influence terroir in the final product—wine—through a triad of correlations of the grape microbiome, fermentation processes, and quality attributes of wine. On top of that, the direct linkage of the metabolomics profile of specific products is associated with the specific vineyard on a regional scale [12,67]. A study that aimed at sampling the whole vineyard environment, including biotic and abiotic factors like soil, leaves, grapes and must, trees, insects, and winery machines during a year, illustrated that only a single yeast (Hanseniaspora uvarum) was present in both vineyard and winery environment.
This research spotlighted the hypothesis that microbial, fungal, and yeast communities are in constant formation, and seasonal variability plays a vital role in the balance of species’ abundance [68]. The concepts mentioned above—soil microbiome, microbial diversity, fungal communities, microbiota, and biodiversity—are also acknowledged as more contemporary themes that entered the research landscape of terroir (Figure 12).
Combining the results from the current bibliometric analysis and the top ten productive countries in published documents about terroir and country collaboration network, we came across two countries with a long history of wine production and wine industries: Italy and France. These two countries are the first to rank in the categories of wine production and table wine production in terms of metric tons and revenues (Table 3).
Moreover, wine is one of the most fundamental elements of Italy’s and France’s cultural heritage, and these countries have deepened all the related activities regarding the wine industry. Tourism, culinary tourism, geo-tourism, agricultural economy, oenology, marketing, scientific innovations, and a solid political background have broadened the role of wine in these countries’ histories and established wine as a national brand [69,70,71]. Terroir, local food systems, and geographical indications of wines, elevating their nutritional and cultural identity, have also manifested in these two countries [72,73,74].
Speaking of countries and noting trend topics of terroir (Figure 9), one can observe that two countries emerged in the terroir research landscape: Germany and China. China and Germany are also sorted in the same categories as France and Italy, within the top countries in wine production (China—5th) and top countries’ table wine production by million euros (Germany—6th). Representative studies regarding terroir, as documented in the Scopus database of this bibliometric approach, referred to terroir’s concept of the winemaking industry and the legal basis and legislation requirements of terroir regarding agricultural products, among others, in contrast to European legislation and ecotourism. Along the same line, studies emerging from Germany referred to the sensory influence of terroir and research on landscapes and terroir [75,76,77,78].
The whole palette of molecular methods and omics technologies has played an important role in deciphering the microbial communities in soil, roots, and vineyards. Metabarcoding techniques and Genome Relative Abundance (GRA) estimation techniques can decipher grapevine and soil microbiome and the delicate balance of microbial communities accommodating the vineyard environment. The soil microbiome and hosted micro-organisms can provide information on plant disease outbreaks or plant health. Also, certain species in the soil and the plant parts affect the plant’s physiological functions and, by extension, plant production and all the biological and biochemical processes [79]. Metatranscriptomic and transcriptomic analyzes have also linked the induction of specific genes for plant disease resistance and differential colonization in the woody and vegetative parts of the grapevine. Using omics technologies also helps identify molecular mechanisms involved in the vine’s response to the other factors that make up the terroir. The gene expression study revealed that the climate and the growing year play a role in the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids [80].
Metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis helps synthesize terroir as a unique vineyard characteristic with a specific metabolomic and biochemical signature [9,81,82,83]. Specific genes and their expression may be a more robust criterion for the specific quality properties of the plant and the final product, linking the terroir with particular genes, as observed transcripts from the abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis pathway are among the most terroir-sensitive genes [84]. Metabolomics is also used to link the production of specific metabolites in the plant to solar radiation, precipitation, and the regional variations of vineyards and wines [82]. Multiple effects, such as the age of the vineyard, regionality effects and fermentation dynamics, can also be traceable by assessing the metabolic abundance and characterization and spotlight wine qualities, discrimination, and classification [85,86,87,88].
Climate change is depicted in Figure 12 with a light red color, indicating that climate change under the terroir research started to emerge in the scientific literature after 2018. The co-occurrence analysis also emphasizes the term “climate” and “climate change” in two clusters, signaling essential research attention and significance. Climate has a significant twofold impact as a crucial terroir component and a force of change.
Climate change puts pressure on the production of plants and agricultural products. Also, it not only quantitatively affects the final product but also qualitatively affects it because of the more frequent occurrence of extreme weather phenomena such as increased temperatures and intense rainfall, increased levels of carbon dioxide, and increase in the defense mechanisms of plants with the production of specific substances, e.g., metabolites such as anthocyanins, tartaric acid, phenolic, and antioxidant content. Thus, the product’s organoleptic characteristics are ultimately differentiated, jeopardizing premium qualities under the geographical indications and resulting in careful planning in agronomic, environmental, post-harvesting, and sustainability strategies and practices [88,89].
Since terroir presupposes stable climatic conditions, climate change creates disharmony in the concept of terroir and in ensuring the requirements for products with geographical indications. In the case of wine in the European Union, the most significant player in global wine production and consumption, the alteration of geographical indication statutes may be required. As a result of temperature and precipitation variability in North and South Europe— hence the elongation of the growing season from the budburst to maturation and harvest—specific grape varieties may dominate over others [8,90,91].
This effect also applies to the wine-producing regions, where some areas will be positively affected by climate changes; for example, the annual increase in hotter days would have a positive impact on Burgundy, Alsace, Champagne, and Loire Valley; some areas will be negatively affected [89]. The climate, a vital component of viticulture yields and wines, influences all levels of grapes and vineyards, from macro to toposcale [92,93,94].
The climate might overshadow all other factors that shape the terroir by engaging in multiple biotic and abiotic processes. However, the concept of terroir cannot be fully realized unless all the elements of the terroir work together harmoniously and seamlessly, leveraging their dynamic functionalities and interconnections.

5. Conclusions

This bibliographic study provides insights into the conceptual framework of terroir until 2022. A total of 907 documents met the search criteria in the Scopus database, with the majority of manuscripts belonging to the fields of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Social Sciences, Environmental Science, Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology.
The analysis also revealed the top ten most productive countries in terroir research, spanning three continents. France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and Germany contributed significantly, representing Europe. The USA and Canada represented North America, while Australia and New Zealand represented Oceania.
Furthermore, the research trends related to terroir were visualized through keyword co-occurrence analysis. The analysis highlighted the strong connection between terroir and research topics such as agriculture, climate change, sustainability, fermentation, genetics, microbial diversity, microbiology, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, sensory analysis, and wine.
Initially, the research in this field revolved around keywords such as “terroir”, “authenticity”, “grapevine”, “anthocyanins”, “soil moisture”, and “wine quality”. However, the research agenda expanded to encompass various topics, including procedures, food analysis, viticulture, wine, taste, sustainability, and climate change. Additionally, new research topics emerged, such as phenolic compounds, anthocyanin, vine, phenols, and sensory analysis, which became integral to the scientific studies on terroir.
It is important to note that this research has some limitations, including using a single database, specific document types, and selecting particular bibliometric indicators.
Nevertheless, this study represents a significant global output on terroir research and provides insights into the trends within the field. To conclude, there is a need for a further clarification of the role of terroir and its interconnection with the microbial dynamics in grapes, the vineyard, and the sensory properties of wine. Exploring the microbiome identity associated with terroir is an area that requires further investigation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.S. and E.G.; methodology, C.S.; software, G.T.; validation, C.V., I.S. and A.T.; formal analysis, C.T.; investigation, Y.K.; data curation, G.T.; writing—original draft preparation, C.S.; writing—review and editing, E.G.; visualization, C.S.; supervision, T.C.C.; project administration, E.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The concept of terroir (Photos: www.unsplash.com; accessed on 15 May 2023).
Figure 1. The concept of terroir (Photos: www.unsplash.com; accessed on 15 May 2023).
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Figure 2. Research flow diagram.
Figure 2. Research flow diagram.
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Figure 3. The number of documents per year.
Figure 3. The number of documents per year.
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Figure 4. Top ten most productive countries in the research landscape of terroir.
Figure 4. Top ten most productive countries in the research landscape of terroir.
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Figure 5. Country collaboration network. (Node size is proportional to the number of publications per country. Edge size is proportional to the number of collaborations between two countries. Nodes are clustered using the Louvain algorithm).
Figure 5. Country collaboration network. (Node size is proportional to the number of publications per country. Edge size is proportional to the number of collaborations between two countries. Nodes are clustered using the Louvain algorithm).
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Figure 6. Documents by subject area.
Figure 6. Documents by subject area.
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Figure 7. The ten most relevant sources.
Figure 7. The ten most relevant sources.
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Figure 8. Frequency word clouds of the (a) abstract; (b) title; (c) keywords (50 words).
Figure 8. Frequency word clouds of the (a) abstract; (b) title; (c) keywords (50 words).
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Figure 9. Trend topics of keywords (Interpretation: each topic is represented on the graph by a bubble, while the size of the bubble is proportional to word occurrences. Minimum word frequency = 5. The grey bar represents the first and third quartiles of the occurrence distribution.
Figure 9. Trend topics of keywords (Interpretation: each topic is represented on the graph by a bubble, while the size of the bubble is proportional to word occurrences. Minimum word frequency = 5. The grey bar represents the first and third quartiles of the occurrence distribution.
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Figure 10. The network, clusters, number of documents and total link strength of the authors.
Figure 10. The network, clusters, number of documents and total link strength of the authors.
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Figure 11. Keyword analysis and the number of occurrences of the keywords in each cluster.
Figure 11. Keyword analysis and the number of occurrences of the keywords in each cluster.
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Figure 12. The evolution of the research on terroir in 2013–2022.
Figure 12. The evolution of the research on terroir in 2013–2022.
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Table 1. The descriptive characteristics of manuscripts indexed in the Scopus database.
Table 1. The descriptive characteristics of manuscripts indexed in the Scopus database.
The Main Information of DataDocument by Type N (%)Top 5 Institutions
(N of Documents)		Top 5 Productive
Authors
(N of Documents)		Authors
h Index
Sources
(Journals, Books, etc.)
417
Annual Growth Rate
7.81%
Average Citations per Doc 23.21
Keywords Plus (ID)
3191
Author’s Keywords (DE) 2598
Single-authored Docs 179
Co-Authors per Doc
4
International
Co-authorships 24.7%		Article 771 (85%)
Review 70 (7.7%)
Conference Paper
66 (7.3%)
SUM = 907		Université de Bordeaux-France (30)Reynolds, A.G. (20)35
Institut National De Recherche Pour L’agriculture, L’alimentation Et L’environnement-INRAE-France (25)Van Leeuwen, C. (16)42
Brock University-Canada (23)Bramley, R.G.V. (13)31
Stellenbosch University-South Africa (20)Bowen, S. (8)18
University of California, Davis-USA (17)Hunter, J.J. (8)14
Table 2. Top five cited articles indexed in the Scopus database.
Table 2. Top five cited articles indexed in the Scopus database.
AuthorTitleYearSourceCited by
(1) Bokulich, N.A., Thorngate, J.H., Richardson, P.M., Mills, D.A.Microbial biogeography of wine grapes is conditioned by cultivar, vintage, and climate2014Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
111(1), pp. E139–E148		626
(2) Van Leeuwen, C., Friant, P., Choné, X., (...), Koundouras, S., Dubourdieu, D.Influence of climate, soil, and cultivar on terroir2005American Journal of
Enology and Viticulture
55(3), pp. 207–217		536
(3) Barham, E.Translating terroir: The global challenge of French AOC labeling2003Journal of Rural Studies
19(1), pp. 127–138		522
(4) Feagan, R.The place of food: Mapping out the ‘local’ in local food systems2007Progress in Human Geography
31(1), pp. 23–42		472
(5) Van Leeuwen, C., Seguin, G.The concept of terroir in viticulture2006Journal of Wine Research
17(1), pp. 1–10		416
Table 3. Top ten countries in wine production (metric tons) and in table wine production (million euros).
Table 3. Top ten countries in wine production (metric tons) and in table wine production (million euros).
Top Ten Countries in Wine Production from 1961 to 2019
(Metric Tons) (Source: https://www.nationmaster.com/nmx/ranking/wine-production (accessed on 31 May 2023))		Top Ten Countries in Table Wine Production (Million Euros) (Source: https://www.nationmaster.com/nmx/ranking/table-wine-production (accessed on 31 May 2023))
Italy5,213,986France1,736.95
France4,546,365Italy740.6
Spain4,188,058Spain499.14
USA2,341,985Romania346.14
China1,961,678Portugal285.09
Argentina1,346,850Germany191.31
Australia1,324,121Croatia130.73
Chile1,229,248Switzerland72.63
South Africa993,377Cyprus24.76
Portugal680,741Greece20.81
Table 4. VOS viewer clusters of “terroir”.
Table 4. VOS viewer clusters of “terroir”.
Cluster IdentificationKeywords
redagriculture, climate change, cultivar, food quality, France, geographical indications, Italy, soils, sustainability, terroir, vine, vineyard, viticulture, wine, wine industry
greenbiodiversity, classification, fermentation, genetics, grape, metabolism, microbial community, microbial diversity, microbiology, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeast
blueanthocyanins, chemistry, mass spectrometry, metabolomics, phenols, principal component analysis, procedures, sensory analysis, taste
yellowclimate, fruit, grapevine, soil, Vitaceae, Vitis, Vitis vinifera
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Stefanis, C.; Giorgi, E.; Tselemponis, G.; Voidarou, C.; Skoufos, I.; Tzora, A.; Tsigalou, C.; Kourkoutas, Y.; Constantinidis, T.C.; Bezirtzoglou, E. Terroir in View of Bibliometrics. Stats 2023, 6, 956-979. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats6040060

AMA Style

Stefanis C, Giorgi E, Tselemponis G, Voidarou C, Skoufos I, Tzora A, Tsigalou C, Kourkoutas Y, Constantinidis TC, Bezirtzoglou E. Terroir in View of Bibliometrics. Stats. 2023; 6(4):956-979. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats6040060

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stefanis, Christos, Elpida Giorgi, Giorgios Tselemponis, Chrysa Voidarou, Ioannis Skoufos, Athina Tzora, Christina Tsigalou, Yiannis Kourkoutas, Theodoros C. Constantinidis, and Eugenia Bezirtzoglou. 2023. "Terroir in View of Bibliometrics" Stats 6, no. 4: 956-979. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats6040060

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