Plastic and Micro/Nanoplastic Pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges, Impacts, and Solutions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. The Sources and Abundance of MNPs in Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Country | Study Area | MPs Concentration | MP Size | MP Shape | Polymer Type | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East Africa | ||||||
Ethiopia | Ditch in Bahir Dar city (sewage water) | 3 ± 1 items/50 mL | >0.5 mm (38 items) and <0.5 mm (66 items) | fragments | PE, PP, PS, and PA | [19] |
Kenya | Malindi surface waters | 3.22 ± 2.04 MPs/m3 | 2–5 mm (66%), 1–2 mm (27%), 0.5–1 mm (6%), and 0.3–0.5 mm (1%) | Fragments, films and fibers | PP, PE | [20] |
Lake Naivasha | 0.407 ± 0.135 particles/m2 | 1–5 mm | fragments, fibers and films | PP, PE, and PES | [30] | |
Creeks along the Kenyan coast | 2897.7 ± 232 MPs/m3 | 20 µm–250 µm | Fibers, fragments and films. | Not reported | [31] | |
Kenya coast | 110 particles/m3 | 0.25–2.4 mm | Fragments | PE, PP | [32] | |
Tanzania | River Themi and its tributaries | 0.2–0.6 items/L | 0.05–1 mm | Fibers, fragments, films and microbeads | PE and PET | [22] |
East African coastal waters (Dares Salaam and Zanzibar) | 0.01–0.76 items/m3 | 2–5 mm | Fragments and fibers | PP and PE | [21] | |
Uganda | Northern Lake Victoria | 0.69–2.19 particles/m3 | <1 mm | Fragments | PE, PP, PS, PES | [23] |
Southern Africa | ||||||
Botswana | Okavango delta | 10.18 to 22.67 items/L | 2–3 mm | fragments and fibers | Not reported | [33] |
Gaborone Dam | 36.0 to 76.0 particles/L | 0.032–4 mm | Fibers, fragment, micro-bead and film | Not reported | [34] | |
South Africa | Cape Town Harbour and the Two Oceans Aquarium | 10.3 ± 1.1 MPs/L | 1000–2000 μm | Filaments and fragments | PET, PP, and PMMA | [24] |
Durban Bay | 80.72 MP/m3 | Not reported | Fragments, fiber | PP, PE, PES | [35] | |
Western Cape coastline | 1.33 ± 0.15 particles/L | 1000–2000 μm | Filaments and film | PET and PE | [36] | |
Vaal River | 0.68 ± 0.64 particles/m3 | 0.055 mm | Fragments, fibers, and pellets. | PE and PP | [37] | |
Plankenburg river | 5.13 ± 6.62 MP/L | 500–1000 μm | Fiber | Cotton, PE and PET | [38] | |
Braamfontein Spruit | 705 particles/m3 | >53 μm | Not reported | Not reported | [39] | |
Crocodile River | 250–2600 particles/m3 | Not reported | Fibers and fragments | Not reported | [40] | |
Zandvlei Catchment and estuary, Cape Town | 2.62 ± 0.41 MP/L | <0.5 mm | Fibers | PE and PP | [41] | |
Simon’s Town Marina (rocky shore) | 0.37 ± 0.06 MP/L | 100–500 μm | Not reported | Cotton, nylon, PET | [42] | |
West Africa | ||||||
Ghana | Densu River | 1 ± 0.72 particles/10 mL | 1 mm | Not reported | Not reported | [25] |
Ghana Gulf of Guinea | 1.14–2.79 particles/m3 | Not reported | Fragments, pellets, film, fiber, and foam | PP, PS, PE, | [43] | |
Nigeria | Osun River | 22,079 ± 134 particles/L | Not reported | Fragment, fiber, pellet, foam and bead | Not reported | [26] |
Lagos Lagoon | 65.2 particles/L | 0.45 to 1000 μm | Fiber | Nylon | [44] | |
Ikpoba Rivers (Edo State) | 2.67 ± 0.58–8.00 ± 1.00 particles/m3 | Not reported | Fragments, film, fiber and foam | PE, PS, PP, PET, PVC | [45] | |
Rivers in southwestern Nigeria (Ibese, Ogbese, Ona, Asejire, Ogun) | 6.71–22.73 particle/L | < 1 mm | Fiber and foam | PP and PE | [46] | |
Lagoonal system, Lagos (Agbowa, Makoko, Ojo, and Liverpool) | 139–303 particles/L | 100 µm. | Fiber, fragments and film | PP and PE | [47] | |
Nwangele area rivers, Imo state | 440 to 1556 particles/L | 11 μm | Fragments, fiber and film | PET, PE, PVC, PP | [48] | |
Central Africa | ||||||
Cameroon | Beaches, coastline of Cameroon | 78 items/m2 | 2.1 mm | Fragments, pellet, film, fiber and foam | Not reported | [27] |
Sub-Saharan Country | Study Area | MPs Concentration | MP Size | MP Shape | Polymer Type | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East Africa | ||||||
Ethiopia | Lake Ziway shoreline | 400–124,000 particles/m3 (median 30,000 particles/m3) | 0.15–40 mm | Pellets and fibers | PP, PE, and alkyd-varnish | [52] |
Lake Hawassa shoreline | 11–74 items/m3 | <1 mm | Fiber (90%), fragments (5%) and pellets (5%) | PS (82%), PE (15%) and PES (3%) | [53] | |
Ditch in Bahir Dar city | 5 ± 1 items/50 g | 0.5–5 mm (55 items) <0.5 mm (80 items) | fragments | PET, PE, PP, PS, PVC, and PA | [19] | |
Kenya | Creeks along the Kenyan coast (Mida Creek, Port Reitz, Tudor Creek) | 1.61 ± 0.14 particles/g | Not reported | Fibers, fragment, and film | PE, PP | [54] |
Tanzania | Coasts of Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar | 79–864.15 MPs/kg | Not reported | Fibers, Fragments | PE and PS | [55] |
Tanzanian coast | 15–2972 particles/kg | Not reported | Fragments and fibers | PP and PE | [56] | |
Farms around River Themi and its tributaries | 0.21 to 1.5 items/g | 0.05 to 5 mm | Fibers, fragments, films and microbeads | PE | [22] | |
Southern Africa | ||||||
Botswana | Okavango Delta | 56.7 to 1756.3 particles/kg | 20 μm–5 mm | Fragment, film, sphere and fiber | PET, PVC and PE | [57] |
Namibia | Perennial rivers (Kunene, Kavango, Oranje) | 2–7 MP/kg | 0.3–1 mm | fragments and films | PP, PE | [58] |
Lishana system | 0–53 MP/kg | 0.3–5 mm | Fragments, fiber and films | PP, PE | ||
ephemeral rivers | 0–66 MP/kg | 0.3–1 mm | Fragments, fiber and films | PE.PS | ||
Mauritius | Agricultural soils | 420.0 ± 244.0 particles/kg | <1 mm | Fiber, fragments | PP, PE and PA | [28] |
South Africa | Durban Bay | 1.76 MP/g | Not reported | Fragments, fiber | PP, PE, PES | [35] |
Western Cape coastline | 185.07 ± 15.25 particles/kg | 2000–5000 μm | Filaments and film | PET and PS | [36] | |
Vaal River | 4600 ± 2800 particles/kg | <2 mm | Fragments and fibers | PE, PP, PES, PU, PEH and PEVA | [59] | |
Plankenburg river | 1587.50 ± 599.32 MP/kg | 500–1000 μm | Fiber | Cotton, PE, PET and PP | [38] | |
Braamfontein Spruit | 166.8 particles/kg | >53 μm | Not reported | Not reported | [39] | |
Crocodile River | 340–900 particles/kg | Not reported | Fragments and fibers | Not reported | [40] | |
Zandvlei Catchment and estuary, Cape Town | 70.23 ± 7.36 MPs/Kg | <0.5 mm | Fibers | PE and PP | [41] | |
Limpopo province (recreational reservoirs) | 25.3–140.6 particles/kg | 2–5 mm | Not reported | PP and PS | [60] | |
Simon’s Town Marina (rocky shore) | 38 ± 2 MP/kg | 100–500 μm | Not reported | Cotton, nylon, PET | [42] | |
West Africa | ||||||
Ghana | Densu River | 3.88 ± 1.25 particles/10 g | 0.7 mm | Not reported | Not reported | [25] |
Ghana’s Gulf of Guinea | 0.144 ± 0.061 items/g | Not reported | Pellets and fibers | Not reported | [61] | |
Sakumo II Lagoon | 1.85 particles/g | 0.1–5 mm | Not reported | Not reported | [62] | |
Nigeria | Osun River | 392–1590 MPs/kg | Not reported | Fragment, fiber, pellet, foam and bead | PET, PE, PVC, PU, EVA and nylon | [26] |
Lagos Lagoon | 3906 particles/kg | 0.45–1000 μm | Fiber | Nylon | [44] | |
Ikpoba Rivers (Edo State) | 40 ± 13.4–55 ± 16.8 particles/kg | Not reported | Films, fragments, fibers, and foams | PE, PS, PP, PET, PVC, PC, and PU | [45] | |
Rivers in southwestern Nigeria (Ibese, Ogbese, Ona, Asejire, Ogun) | 5.69–22.90 particle/kg | < 1 mm | Fiber and foam | PP and PE | [46] | |
Lagoonal system, Lagos (Agbowa, Makoko, Ojo, and Liverpool) | 310–2319 particles/kg | 100 µm. | Fiber, fragments, and film | PP and PE | [47] | |
Badagry, Oniru Elegushi, Atican and Eleko beach | 3424 particles/m2 | 1–5 mm | foam, fragments, fiber and pellets | PE, PP and PS | [63] |
Sub-Saharan Country | Study Area | Organism | MPs Concentration | MP Size | MP Shape | Polymer Type | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East Africa | |||||||
Ethiopia | Lake Ziway | Fish (Clarias gariepinus, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius carassius, Oreochromis niloticus) | 0.0002–385.2 mg/kg | 0.15–40 mm | Pellets and fibers | PP, PE, and alkyd-varnish | [52] |
Kenya | Kenyan Coast (Mida Creek and Mombasa) | Jellyfish (Crambionella orsini) | 0.03–0.05 MP/g of tissue | 0.1–3 mm | Fibers | Not reported | [68] |
Kenya coast | Chaetognatha, Copepods, Amphipoda and fish larvae | 0.16–0.46 particles individual | 0.01–1.6 mm | Fragments | PE, PP | [32] | |
Kenyan coast. | brachyuran crabs | 0.65 MPs/g | 0.1–4.2 mm | Fibers | Not reported | [69] | |
oyster | 3.36 MPs/g tissue | ||||||
Tanzania | Tanzania Coast | Cockles (Anadara antiquata) | 0–5 particles/individual | Not reported | Fibers and fragments | PP and PE | [56] |
Southern Africa | |||||||
Botswana | Okavango delta | Fish (Tilapia sparrmanii) | Not reported | 1–3 mm | Fragments, micro-beads, fibers and films | Nor reported | [33] |
Gaborone Dam | Clams (Corbicula fluminea) | 2.2 to 8.0 count/site | 1–4 mm | Fibers and film | Not reported | [34] | |
Fish (Oreochromis niloticus and Coregonus kiyi) | 1.5 to 4.2 count/fish | 0.032–5 mm | Fragments, micro-beads, fibers and film | Not reported | [34] | ||
South Africa | Cape Town | mussels | 3.83 MPs/mussel 0.04 MPs/g tissue | Not reported | Filaments and fragments | PET | [70] |
Cape Town Harbour and the Two Oceans Aquarium | Mussels | 6.27 ± 0.59 MPs/individual | 1000–2000 μm | Filaments and fragments | PET, PMMA and PE | [24] | |
South African coastline (Orange River mouth to Mossel Bay | Fish (Engraulis encrasicolus | 1.13 items/individual | Not reported | Microfibers and fragments | PE, PP, PA, PES | [71] | |
Etrumeus whiteheadi | 1.38 items/individual | ||||||
Sardinops sagax) | 1.58 items/individual | ||||||
Agulhas Bank | Fish | 2.8 to 4.6 items/fish | 500–1000 μm | Fibers | Not reported | [72] | |
KwaZulu-Natal (east coast mangroves) | Fish (Oreochromis mossambicus, Terapon jarbua, Ambassis dussumieri) | 0.79 ± 1.00 particles per fish. | 0.1–4.8 mm | Fibers and fragments | Rayon, PES, nylon and PVC | [73] | |
Braamfontein Spruit | Chironomus sp. larvae | 53.4 particles/g | >53 μm | Not reported | Not reported | [39] | |
South-east coastline (Kenton-on-Sea, Kayser’s Beach, Kidd’s Beach) | Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis and Perna perna) | 0.10–0.97 MPs/g | Not reported | Microbeads, fiber | PE | [74] | |
Simon’s Town Marina (rocky shore) | Mussel, Redbait, Cushion star, Limpet, Winkle, Starfish, Whelk | 0.28 ± 0.04 MP/g | 100–500 μm | Not reported | Cotton, nylon, PET | [42] | |
West Africa | |||||||
Ghana | Eastern Central Atlantic Ocean | Sardinella maderensis, S. a aurita, Dentex angolensis | 25.7–40 MPs/g | Not reported | Micro-beads, film, fragments, fibers and foams | Not reported | [75] |
Jamestown fish landing beach | Fish (Pseudupeneus prayensis, Pagellus bellottii, Sardinella maderensis, Decapterus rhonchus) | 133 items/fish | 0.5–1.0 mm | fibers | PE, PVA, PA | [76] | |
Volta Lake | prawn (Macrobrachium vollenhovenii) | 4.7 ± 2.1 items/individual | 654 μm | fibers | PE, PP, PS, PES | [77] | |
Volta clam (Galatea paradoxa), | 3.0 ± 1.3 items/individual | ||||||
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) | 2.8 ± 0.6 items/individual | ||||||
Pra estuary, Shama District | Fish (Sarotherodon melanotheron) gastrointestinal tract | 9.83 ± 4.63 items/individual. | 0.5–5 mm | Fragments, pellets, and fiber | PE | [78] | |
Chrysichthys nigrodigitalus gills | 4.83 ± 2.08 items/individual | ||||||
Densu River | Fish Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, | 2.88 ± 2.11 MP/individual | 0.10–2.22 mm | Not reported | Not reported | [25] | |
Sarotherodon melanotheron | 2.38 ± 1.66 MP/individual | 0.15–3.2 mm | |||||
Gulf of Guinea | oysters (Crassostrea tulipa) | 1.4–3.4 items/individual (and 0.34 to 1.7 items/g tissue | 33–4870 μm, | Fragments, film, and fiber | PE, PP and PS | [79] | |
Nigeria | Osun River | Fish (Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus) | 1691.7 ± 443 particle/fish | Not reported | Fragments, microbeads, fiber, film, pellets, foam | Not reported | [26] |
Ikpoba Rivers (Edo State) | Clarias gariepinus | 3.00 ± 1.00 particles–7.33 ± 2.08 particles/fish | Not reported | Films, fragments, fibers, and foams | PE, PS, PP, PET, PVC, PC, and PU | [45] | |
Oreochromis niloticus | 2.33 ± 0.58–6.67 ± 0.58 particles/fish | ||||||
Eleyele lake | Commercial fish species | 1–34 MP/fish | 1 μm–1.53 mm | Not reported | Not reported | [80] |
4. Impact of Plastic Waste
4.1. The Effect of Plastics on Food Production
4.2. The Effect of Plastic on Water Quality
4.3. The Effect of Plastics on Health
4.4. The Effect of Plastics on the Environment
4.4.1. The Effect of Plastics on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions
4.4.2. The Effect of Plastic on the Creation of New Communities
4.4.3. The Effect of Plastic on Ocean Acidification
5. Measures to Reduce Plastic Waste in SSA
5.1. Promotion of Environmental Awareness and Education
5.2. Implementation of Bans on the Use of non-Biodegradable Single-Use Plastics
5.3. Management of Waste and Waste Management Infrastructure
5.3.1. Wastewater Treatment
5.3.2. Repairs and Maintenance of Waste Facilities
5.4. Use of Circular Plastic Economy Measures
5.5. Biodegradation of Plastic Polymers Using Plastic-Eating Insects and Microorganisms
5.6. Development of New Technologies and Solutions for Plastic Waste Management
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Article Type | Number |
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Journal articles | 124 |
Book sections | 3 |
Reports | 8 |
News articles | 4 |
Total used | 139 |
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Dube, E.; Okuthe, G.E. Plastic and Micro/Nanoplastic Pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges, Impacts, and Solutions. World 2024, 5, 325-345. https://doi.org/10.3390/world5020018
Dube E, Okuthe GE. Plastic and Micro/Nanoplastic Pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges, Impacts, and Solutions. World. 2024; 5(2):325-345. https://doi.org/10.3390/world5020018
Chicago/Turabian StyleDube, Edith, and Grace Emily Okuthe. 2024. "Plastic and Micro/Nanoplastic Pollution in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges, Impacts, and Solutions" World 5, no. 2: 325-345. https://doi.org/10.3390/world5020018