Impact of Oat Husk Extracts on Mid-Stage Cement Hydration and the Mechanical Strength of Mortar
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Initial period, occurring immediately after contact with water;
- Induction or dormant period, a period of low reaction rate in which the matrix is still malleable;
- Acceleration period, which can take hours, characterised by the re-acceleration of reaction rates, consequently solidifying the matrix, with the beginning of this phase corresponding to the initial setting time measured by the Vicat method (this can take hours), but the Vicat’s final setting marks a point before its end;
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Binder
2.1.2. Fine Aggregates
2.1.3. Oats Husks
2.2. Procedures
2.2.1. Binder Chemical Characterization
2.2.2. Husks’ Chemical Characterization
2.2.3. Extractives’ Removal
2.2.4. Leached Mixing Water
2.2.5. Mixing Procedure
2.2.6. Vicat Testing for Monitoring Cement Setting
2.2.7. Analysis of the Direct Contact between the Sample and the Matrix
2.2.8. Hydration Analysis
2.2.9. Mechanical Tests
2.2.10. Statistical Analysis and Chart Production
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Binder Mineral Phases Composition
3.2. Oat Husk Composition and Removal of Extractives
Oat Husks and the Removal of Extractives
3.3. Extractives’ Influence on Cement Setting Time and Solutions’ pH
3.4. Impact of Extractives on Hydration Product Formation
3.4.1. Identification of Functional Groups in the Presence of Extractive Solutions
3.4.2. Analysis of the Thermal Degradation of Cement Hydration Products
3.5. Influence of Extractives on Mechanical Properties
4. Conclusions
- The examined oat husks exhibited high lignocellulosic content, primarily holocellulosic cellulose content, greater than lignin;
- Hot water proved to be more effective than cold water in removing extractives;
- The duration of immersion is more relevant than the number of washing cycles for the effective removal of extractives;
- Cold water extractives resulted in a setting delay of 2.44% per gram of cement, while hot water extractives caused a delay of 4.03% per gram of cement;
- The presence of extractives significantly influences the duration to reaching the final setting of the matrix.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mineral Phase | Cement Chemist Notation | (%) | Chemical Formula | ICSD Code |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alite | C3S(monoclinic) | 58.0 | Ca3SiO5-Mg, Al | 94742 |
Belite | C2S(monoclinic) | 17.2 | Ca2SiO4 | 81096 |
Aluminate | C3A(cubic) | 4.6 | Ca3Al2O6 | 1841 |
Aluminate | C3A(orthorhombic) | 0.1 | Ca8.5NaAl6O18 | 100220 |
Ferrite | C4AF | 9.2 | Ca2AlFeO5 | 9197 |
Gypsum | CŠH2 | 2.4 | CaSO4.2H2O | 151692 |
Anhydrite | CŠ | 2.3 | CaSO4 | 24473 |
Hemihydrate | CŠH0.5 | 0.5 | CaSO4.0.5H2O | 79528 |
Portlandite | CH | 2.8 | Ca(OH)2 | 15471 |
Calcite | CČ | 2.9 | CaCO3 | 80869 |
Components | (% of Dry Weight Mass) | C.I (95%) | Adapted from Neitzel et al. [54] | Adapted from Schmitz et al. [34] |
---|---|---|---|---|
(%) | (%) | |||
Lignin (Acid Soluble) | 20.28 | ±0.47 | 25.44 | 25.40 |
Holocellulose | 70.90 | ±1.96 | 66.19 | 50.30 |
Cellulose | 33.65 | ±2.07 | 29.80 | 17.20 |
Hemicellulose | 37.25 | 36.39 | 33.10 | |
Soxhlet extractives (Water as solvent) | 5.01 | ±0.26 | 16.98 b | |
Ash | 1.99 c | ±0.01 | 6.27 b | 6.00 b |
Others | 1.81 | ±0.00 | 2.10 a | 18.30 a |
Component | C | O | Al | Si | K | Ca |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weight husk (%) | 35.21 | 59.65 | 0.59 | 3.47 | 0.97 | 0.11 |
Weight ash (%) | 0 | 46.94 | 0.64 | 23.84 | 15.17 | 4.79 |
Washing Cycles | Duration | Extraction Method | Extractives Removed (%) | C.I (95%) | Number of Samples | S.D |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 h | Hot Water | 8.702 | ±0.349 | 5 | 0.281 |
1 | 6 h | Hot Water | 16.266 | ±0.353 | 5 | 0.285 |
1 | 12 h | Cold Water | 13.385 | ±0.179 | 5 | 0.144 |
1 | 24 h | Cold Water | 15.441 | ±0.107 | 5 | 0.086 |
1 | 6 h | Ca(OH)2 | 9.517 | ±0.961 | 4 | 0.774 |
1 | 24 h | Ca(OH)2 | 27.345 | ±0.519 | 5 | 0.326 |
1 | 1 h | Cold Water | 1.362 | ±0.537 | 4 | 0.338 |
2 | 1 h | Cold Water | 0.275 | ±0.080 | 4 | 0.050 |
3 | 1 h | Cold Water | 0.162 | ±0.076 | 4 | 0.048 |
4 | 1 h | Cold Water | 0.150 | ±0.113 | 4 | 0.071 |
5 | 1 h | Cold Water | 0.083 | ±0.313 | 3 | 0.126 |
Σ_{i = 1}^{5} i | Cold Water | 2.033 |
Measurement | Sample CW | Sample CCH | Sample LW | Sample LCH |
---|---|---|---|---|
Initial pH | 6.532 | 12.855 | 6.954 | 12.855 |
Final pH | 6.421 | 12.741 | 5.652 | 10.245 |
Formulation | Initial Setting Time (Hour:Minute:Second) | C.I (95%) | Final Setting Time (Hour:Minute:Second) | C.I (95%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Distilled water (Sample CW) | 02:19:02 | ±00:14:21 | 02:36:59 | ±00:18:18 |
Cold-water leached (Sample LW) | 02:39:21 | ±00:19:03 | 03:26:48 | ±00:10:32 |
Hot-water leached (Sample LBCW) | 02:50:55 | ±00:16:53 | 03:59:14 | ±00:22:54 |
Ca(OH)2 solution (Sample CCH) | 02:24:04 | ±00:01:00 | 03:19:04 | ±00:08:04 |
Ca(OH)2 leached (Sample LCH) | 03:02:03 | ±00:05:26 | 04:32:03 | ±00:03:02 |
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Bonifacio, A.L.; Archbold, P. Impact of Oat Husk Extracts on Mid-Stage Cement Hydration and the Mechanical Strength of Mortar. Constr. Mater. 2024, 4, 91-109. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4010006
Bonifacio AL, Archbold P. Impact of Oat Husk Extracts on Mid-Stage Cement Hydration and the Mechanical Strength of Mortar. Construction Materials. 2024; 4(1):91-109. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4010006
Chicago/Turabian StyleBonifacio, Alysson Larsen, and Paul Archbold. 2024. "Impact of Oat Husk Extracts on Mid-Stage Cement Hydration and the Mechanical Strength of Mortar" Construction Materials 4, no. 1: 91-109. https://doi.org/10.3390/constrmater4010006