The Potential Impact of a High-Frequency Telecommunication Network on Cognitive Functions: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To provide categorical information on RF-EMF exposure from UE and base stations.
- To present a comprehensive review of the impact of high-frequency communication technologies on human cognitive abilities.
- To discuss the challenges and opportunities of implementing the smart environment in parallel with the deployment of high-frequency infrastructure.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Inclusion Criteria
- Research that focuses on how cognitive processes are impacted by high-frequency RF-EMF exposure due to telecommunication networks, particularly mobile phones, UE, and base stations.
- Studies involving human participants of any age.
- Articles presenting novel empirical research, such as experiments, surveys, or clinical trials.
- Studies that evaluate cognitive abilities, utilizing neuropsychological tests or approved assessment instruments.
- Review publications that examine the effects of various exposures on cognitive processes.
- The English language is used throughout the content.
- The study is published only in a journal or conference proceedings.
2.2. Exclusion Criteria
- Studies that do not focus on analyzing the effects of high-frequency exposure emitted from mobile phones, UE, or base stations.
- Studies that focus solely on animal or in vitro experiments.
- Studies that were published in any language other than English.
- Articles that are not published in any journal or conference proceedings.
- Studies that look at how high-frequency RF-EMF exposure affects human physical functions other than cognition.
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Keyword Strategy and Search Engine
2.5. Cognitive Performance
2.5.1. Limited or No Negative Impacts on Cognitive Abilities
2.5.2. Methodological Challenges and Inconsistent Findings in Research
2.5.3. Positive Correlation of RF-EMF Exposure on Cognitive Abilities
3. Findings and Discussion
3.1. Evaluating Health Concerns
3.2. Comparative Analysis
3.3. Challenges and Opportunities
3.4. Limitations
- Small sample size: Several studies have been carried out with a small sample size, which may restrict the findings’ generalizability for larger groups.
- Reliance on self-reported data: Some studies included self-reported data on wireless device usage, which may be prone to recall bias and may not adequately reflect real exposure levels.
- Short-term measurements: Some studies only tested memory performance or cognitive functions over a short period of time, which may not reflect the long-term effects of RF-EMF exposure.
- Absence of validated assessment methods: The inconsistent nature of study results may be attributed to the lack of proven methods to accurately detect variations in cognitive performance caused by exposure to RF-EMFs.
- Technical variations: Differences in sample size, study group, design of experiment, exposure setup, and exposure environments may all contribute to the broad variation of findings.
- Heterogeneity of participants: The majority of investigations featured right-handed subjects, and possible variations in response among various groups of participants might need to be examined thoroughly.
- Absence of specified sensitive tasks: No specific task that is exceptionally sensitive to RF-EMF exposure has been identified.
- Limited research of long-term impacts: Some studies only looked at the short-term effects of RF-EMF exposure; therefore, they are unable to draw any conclusions regarding the long-term effects or the consequences of prolonged exposure on human health.
- Marginal effects: The reported changes in brain function in some research were minor and might have happened by chance, raising doubts regarding their relevance.
- Possible exposure from other sources: The studies did not account for the possibility of exposure to RF-EMF from other sources, such as televisions, remote controls, and wireless networks.
- Variations in the preliminary assessment of exposure: Studies showed variations in the initial assessment of exposure, which could lead to variation in the outcomes.
3.5. Toward Sustainability: Net Zero and Edge Intelligence in High-Frequency Contexts
3.6. Future Directions
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BS | base station |
D2D | device-to-device |
EMF | electromagnetic field |
LTE | long-term evolution |
UMTS | Universal Mobile Telecommunications System |
GSM | Global System for Mobile Communications |
WCDMA | Wideband Code Division Multiple Access |
MP | mobile phone |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses |
RT | reaction time |
SWM | spatial working memory |
RF-EMF | radiofrequency electromagnetic energy |
SMS | short message service |
UE | user equipment |
Wi-Fi | wireless fidelity |
3GPP | 3rd Generation Partnership Project |
5G NR | 5th Generation New Radio |
B5G | Beyond 5th Generation |
AI | Artificial Intelligence |
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Reference | Focus Area |
---|---|
[29] (Regel et al., 2011) | The review identifies the effects of RF-EMF exposure on cognitive performance measures in humans and highlights the methodological issues in the studies. |
[30] (Zhang et al., 2017) | This review article focuses on recent neuroimaging and electroencephalography studies to present a more specific analysis of the effects of mobile phone EMF exposure on neurocognitive functions. |
[31] (Benke et al., 2022) | This systematic review aims to assess the impact of long-term radiofrequency exposure on cognitive function by analyzing human observational studies. The review categorizes outcomes into three main areas: global cognitive function, domain-specific cognitive function, and clinical diagnoses of cognitive impairment. |
[32] (Ishihara et al., 2020) | The paper reviews previous studies that investigated the relationship between exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) in the high-frequency band and cognitive function in children and adolescents. |
This work | This study categorizes RF-EMF exposure levels from UE, MP, and base stations and investigates their potential impact on human cognitive abilities. Additionally, it explores the association between RF-EMF exposure and the concept of smart environments, highlighting both opportunities and challenges. |
Reference | Study Population | Exposure Source | Tests | Results/Conclusion | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[37] | 439 adolescents | Various wireless devices | Memory performance scores | RF-EMF exposure may impair adolescent memory function | Further research needed for longer exposures |
[25] | 55 people | Mobile phones | Neuropsychological tasks | No medium-term effect of daily mobile phone use on cognitive function | Additional research required for long-term exposures |
[38] | A total of 317 grade pupils | Mobile phone use | Exposure questionnaires | Increased mobile phone use linked to quicker and less accurate responses to cognitive tasks | Further research needed on cellphone use and cognitive function |
[34] | Not specified | SMS and voice calls | Cognitive response time | Fluctuations in cognitive response time associated with SMS and voice call exposure | The study relied on self-reported mobile phone use, which may not be accurate or reliable |
[35] | Not specified | Typical GSM phone | Cognitive tasks | Exposure to specific brain region delays left-hand reaction time in cognitive tasks | Further research needed for validation |
[39] | A total of 18 participants | 3G UMTS-based phones | Health symptoms, cognition | No negative effects of 3G phone RF-EMF on sleep and cognition | Study involved a small sample size and short exposure duration |
[26] | A total of 85 medical students | 3G and 4G cellular phones | Reaction time, short-term memory | Electromagnetic waves affect response time, no effect on short-term memory | Further investigation into wave frequency’s impact needed |
[40] | Not specified | RF waves from gadgets | Brain signal measurements | RF signals may lead to cognitive deficits | More detailed examinations and studies are required |
[27] | A total of 60 young adults | 3G and 4G RF-EMF exposure | Stroop test | No influence of 3G and 4G exposure on cognitive abilities | Not specified |
[41] | Preadolescence and adolescence | Not specified | Neurocognitive tests | Higher RF-EMF exposure associated with lower non-verbal intelligence scores in pre-adolescents | No significant relationship found for other cognitive function outcomes |
[42] | 123 boys | Environmental RF-EMFs | Neurobehavioral function | Higher RF-EMF exposure linked to lower verbal expression and higher internalizing problems | No significant effect on other neurobehavioral functioning tasks |
Publication Year | Related Works | Exposure Type | Source of Exposure | No Impact | Detrimental Impact | Inconsistent Impact |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | [37] | GSM and UMTS | UE | × | × | × |
2011 | [29] | GSM and UMTS | MP | × | × | × |
2006 | [22] | UMTS | BS | ✓ | × | × |
2019 | [45] | GSM | BS | × | ✓ | × |
2009 | [33] | GSM | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2017 | [30] | GSM | MP | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
2015 | [23] | GSM and UMTS | BS | ✓ | × | × |
2007 | [24] | GSM | MP | × | ✓ | ✓ |
2005 | [25] | GSM | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2009 | [38] | – | MP | × | ✓ | ✓ |
2010 | [34] | – | MP | × | ✓ | ✓ |
2006 | [35] | GSM | MP | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
2019 | [39] | UMTS | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2019 | [26] | UMTS and LTE | MP | ✓ | ✓ | × |
2013 | [40] | GSM, UMTS, LTE | UE | × | ✓ | × |
2018 | [46] | GSM and UMTS | UE | × | ✓ | × |
2018 | [27] | UMTS and LTE | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2021 | [41] | GSM and UMTS | MP | ✓ | ✓ | × |
2016 | [36] | GSM and UMTS | BS | × | ✓ | ✓ |
2016 | [42] | GSM | BS | × | ✓ | ✓ |
2011 | [28] | GSM and WCDMA | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2023 | [47] | – | MP | ✓ | × | × |
2022 | [31] | – | UE | × | × | ✓ |
2020 | [32] | – | MP | × | ✓ | ✓ |
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Ratul, R.H.; Tasnim, M.; Wang, H.-C.; Badhon, R.H.; Kawser, M.T. The Potential Impact of a High-Frequency Telecommunication Network on Cognitive Functions: A Review. Foundations 2024, 4, 14-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/foundations4010003
Ratul RH, Tasnim M, Wang H-C, Badhon RH, Kawser MT. The Potential Impact of a High-Frequency Telecommunication Network on Cognitive Functions: A Review. Foundations. 2024; 4(1):14-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/foundations4010003
Chicago/Turabian StyleRatul, Rashed Hasan, Maliha Tasnim, Hwang-Cheng Wang, Rashadul Hasan Badhon, and Mohammad Tawhid Kawser. 2024. "The Potential Impact of a High-Frequency Telecommunication Network on Cognitive Functions: A Review" Foundations 4, no. 1: 14-31. https://doi.org/10.3390/foundations4010003