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Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Equids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 May 2026) | Viewed by 23813

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Malgorzata Domino

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Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS—SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: equine disease; diagnostic imaging; surface electromyography (sEMG); functional electrical stimulation (FES); image processing; signal processing
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Prof. Dr. Bernard Turek

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Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS—SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: equine surgery; sports medicine; musculoskeletal diagnostic imaging; musculoskeletal functional assess-ment; lameness; poor performance

Dr. Tomasz Jasiński

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Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS—SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: equine practice; diagnostic imaging; computed tomography (CT); dual-energy computed tomography (du-al-energy CT); magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); positron emission tomography (PET)

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Many studies in musculoskeletal research on human and animal models are now looking for new techniques rather than conventional modalities of the functional assessment and 3D imaging of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and fascia to enable the early detection of their failure or the failure of their systems. Given that recent advances in equipment and room modifications allow for regular multidetector CT and dual-energy CT in standing sedated horses, CT-based anatomical 3D models, segmentations, and CT-based measurements become clinically applicable. Similarly, the adaptation of wireless, multi-sensor sEMG systems and the widespread use of lameness locators in everyday practice shed new light on muscle functional assessment in equine clinical practice.

Since the utilization of advanced diagnostic imaging and functional tests by practitioners leads to an increasing understanding of the musculoskeletal system in horses, this Special Issue aims at gathering recent studies utilizing advanced diagnosis imaging, or advanced approaches to conventional diagnostic imaging, and functional assessments of the musculoskeletal system in equine veterinary practice.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following: advanced diagnostic imaging, image processing, image segmentation, image feature extraction, functional assessment, signal filtration, and signal feature extraction in cases of muscle, bone, joint, tendon, and fascia diseases in horses; however, the identification of a normal morphological and functional spectrum in addition to its discrimination from pathological conditions are also welcomed.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Malgorzata Domino
Prof. Dr. Bernard Turek
Dr. Tomasz Jasiński
Guest Editors

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Keywords

muscle diseases
bone and joint diseases
tendon and fascia diseases
diagnostic imaging
CT
dual-energy CT
MRI
sEMG
FES
image and signal processing

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 942 KB

Open AccessArticle

Objective, Longitudinal Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Metacarpal Condyles in Non-Lame Thoroughbred Racehorses

by Vivien Putnoki, Danica Pollard, Sue Dyson, Koppány Boros and Annamaria Nagy

Animals 2026, 16(6), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16060973 - 20 Mar 2026

Viewed by 902

Abstract

There are limited data on sequential computed tomographic (CT) evaluation and objective CT assessment of the metacarpal condyles in Thoroughbred racehorses. This longitudinal study aimed to document changes in attenuation of the metacarpal condyles during the first two years of training and racing. Fan-beam CT examination of the metacarpophalangeal regions was performed on 40 non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings, and repeated four more times, approximately six months apart. Mean Hounsfield Unit (HU) measurements were obtained on sagittal reconstructions of the dorsal and palmar halves of the medial and lateral condyles and parasagittal grooves. One-way ANOVA with a post hoc Tukey’s Test was used to investigate differences between mean HU values over time at the different regions of interest. Multivariable mixed-effects linear regression models assessed the association between dorsal and palmar HU and potential explanatory variables. Mean HU increased significantly with training, especially during the first six months, with a maximal sequential mean increase found in the medial parasagittal groove (119.8 [95% confidence interval 85.3, 154.30], p < 0.001). Dorsal regions had higher HU than palmar regions, with the highest HU recorded in the dorsal aspect of the medial condyle at time 3 (mean HU 1120.1 ± 63.4). Condyles had higher HU than parasagittal grooves (p < 0.001), the palmar half of the right condyles had higher HU than the left (p = 0.045) and the dorsal aspect of the medial condyle had higher HU than the lateral (p < 0.001). An increasing number of race starts and higher body weight:height ratio were associated with higher HU (p < 0.001). The main limitation was the loss of horses to follow-up as the study progressed. In conclusion, density of most regions of the metacarpal condyles increased with time spent in training, reflecting adaption to racehorse training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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23 pages, 3399 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Computer-Aided Diagnosis of Equine Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis Using Machine Learning Integrating Computed Tomography Findings and Synovial Fluid Biomarkers

by Tomasz Jasiński, Marta Borowska, Edyta Juszczuk-Kubiak, Bernard Turek, Michał Kaczorowski, Mateusz Bąk, Julia Żuk and Małgorzata Domino

Animals 2026, 16(6), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16060932 - 16 Mar 2026

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Horses presenting with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunctions are often clinically evaluated for TMJ osteoarthritis (OA). Due to the unique characteristic of TMJ-related pain, the clinical diagnosis of equine TMJ OA is challenging; however, it may be supported by computer-aided tools incorporating biomarker data. This study aims to evaluate a machine learning-based approach to address a binary classification distinguishing healthy TMJs from TMJ OA. Among 50 equine cadaver heads, 82 TMJs were included and annotated as healthy or OA based on histological and computed tomography (CT) findings. For each TMJ, nine CT findings were assessed, and synovial fluid was collected for the evaluation of twelve biomarkers. Using a biomarker dataset, correlations among biomarkers were calculated and supported with a mixed-effects logistic regression model. Using a combined dataset, twelve machine learning models, incorporating two feature selection methods and six classification algorithms, were evaluated. Specific biomarker levels showed predominately positive correlations with TMJ OA, age, and with each other; however, only age had a significant effect on OA assignment in the mixed model. The best-performing machine learning model achieved an accuracy of 0.82 and an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.85 for binary TMJ classification. The proposed classification model outperforms conventional diagnostic methods and may therefore be considered beneficial in aiding the diagnosis of equine TMJ OA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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18 pages, 2450 KB

Open AccessArticle

Radiographic Prevalence of Anatomical Variations of the Ventral Lamina of the Sixth Cervical Vertebra, C6/C7 Articular Process Joint Modelling and Competition Outcomes in Warmblood Sport Horses

by Teresa Strootmann, Vanessa G. Peter and Jens Körner

Animals 2026, 16(3), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16030424 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1113

Abstract

Anatomical variations of the caudal ventral lamina of the sixth cervical vertebra (C6), referred to as equine caudal cervical morphologic variations (ECCMV), and radiographic modelling of the caudal cervical articular process joints (APJ) are commonly identified in sport horses, yet their interrelationship and relevance for athletic performance remain controversial. This retrospective observational study aimed to determine the prevalence of ECCMV and APJ modelling in a clinically sound warmblood sport horse population, to evaluate a potential association and to assess if ECCMV affects competition performances. Records of 200 warmbloods, presented for pre-purchase examination between 2020 and 2024 were reviewed: the predominant breed was Hanoverian (n = 131), followed by Oldenburg (n = 27) and Holsteiner (n = 22), including 127 geldings, 61 mares and 12 stallions with a median age of 5. ECCMV was diagnosed on latero-lateral radiographs if the caudal ventral lamina of C6 was uni- or bilaterally absent, and APJ modelling at C6/C7 was graded as either normal or mild or moderate to severe. Competition placings and lifetime earnings of each horse were collected from the German National Equestrian Federation database. ECCMV was found in 30% of horses and APJ modelling in 32.5% (mild 26.5%, moderate/severe 6%). There was no significant association between the presence of ECCMV, APJ alterations and competition results, but horses with ECCMV were less likely to exhibit radiographic changes in the adjacent APJ compared to those with a normal C6 morphology (23.3% vs. 36.4%). In conclusion, ECCMV is a common anatomical variation in clinically sound warmbloods, neither predisposing them to APJ modelling nor limiting athletic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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16 pages, 11326 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diagnostic Performance of Radiography for the Evaluation of Osteoarthritis in the Equine Distal Tarsus: Comparison with Computed Tomography

by Joëlle Isabeau Steiger, Henning Richter, Brice Donati and Stefanie Ohlerth

Animals 2025, 15(17), 2522; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172522 - 27 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The objective of the present study was to compare the diagnostic performance of radiography to computed tomography (CT) for the diagnosis of distal tarsal osteoarthritis. All images were interpreted and scored by 2 evaluators until a consensus was reached; they were blinded to the history, final imaging diagnosis, and results of the corresponding radiographic or CT study. On radiographs and CT images of 54 tarsi, 6 criteria (osteophyte/enthesophyte height, small/large subchondral bone radiolucencies, subchondral bone thickness, joint space narrowing) were scored in the proximal intertarsal (PIJ), distal intertarsal (DIJ), and tarsometatarsal joint (TMTJ). Compared to CT, mean radiographic scores were significantly lower for 1. small and large subchondral bone radiolucencies in all joints (p < 0.001–0.03); 2. subchondral bone thickness in the PIJ and DIJ (p = 0.03 and 0.005); and 3. enthesophyte and joint space narrowing score in the DIJ (p = 0.04 and 0.002). Low-to-high positive predictive values (PPV) were calculated for the individual criteria in all joints (0–100%). For the sum of scores of all criteria in the PIJ, DIJ, or TMTJ, respectively, PPVs were high (94–98%). In conclusion, radiography is a useful screening tool provided multiple criteria are assessed. However, CT offers significant advantages for the diagnosis of distal tarsal OA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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12 pages, 2299 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

An Ultrasound-Guided Thoracolumbar Erector Spinae Plane Block: An Experimental Preliminary Study in Horses

by Francisco Medina-Bautista, Irene Nocera, Antonia Sánchez de Medina, Chiara Di Franco, Angela Briganti, Juan Morgaz and María del Mar Granados

Animals 2025, 15(15), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152264 - 1 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1290

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of the ultrasound-guided thoracolumbar erector spinae plane (TL-ESP) block in standing horses. A total of 24 injections (n = 12) were performed at the L1 level using either 0.1 mL/kg of saline solution (SS group) or 2% lidocaine (LID group). The block feasibility was assessed based on needle visualization and injection time, while efficacy was evaluated through craniocaudal and dorsoventral (DV) spread using the pinprick technique over 270 min. Desensitization was observed at least once in 100% of horses in the LID group and in 75% in the SS group (p = 0.001). However, in the SS group, desensitization was primarily limited to the Th18 metamer at the 2 cm DV position, with a shorter duration compared to the LID group. The block onset occurred at 22.5 (11.25–60) min in the LID group and at 5 (5–30) min in the SS group (p = 0.069). The number of affected metamers was significantly higher in the LID group (2 [1–3]) compared to the SS group (1 [1–2.25], p = 0.014). At the 2 cm DV point, the end of the block effect occurred at 135 (120–210) min in the LID group and at 60 (3.75–60) min in the SS group (p = 0.001). Needle visualization was excellent in 95.8% of cases, and the mean injection time was 2.5 (2–3) min. These findings confirm that the TL-ESP block is a feasible technique in standing horses. However, its effect is predominantly localized to dorsal dermatomes with a limited ventral spread. Future studies evaluating larger volumes and multiple injection sites are warranted to enhance its clinical applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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20 pages, 4949 KB

Open AccessArticle

Motion Coupling at the Cervical Vertebral Joints in the Horse—An Ex Vivo Study Using Bone-Anchored Markers

by Katharina Bosch, Rebeka R. Zsoldos, Astrid Hartig and Theresia Licka

Animals 2025, 15(15), 2259; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152259 - 1 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2105

Abstract

The influence of soft tissue structures, including ligaments spanning one or more intervertebral junctions and the nuchal ligament, on motion of the equine cervical joints remains unclear. The present study addressed this using four post-mortem horse specimens extending from head to withers with all ligaments intact. Three-dimensional kinematics was obtained from markers on the head and bone-anchored markers on each cervical and the first thoracic vertebra during rotation, lateral bending, flexion and extension of the whole head, and neck segment. Yaw, pitch, and roll angles in 8 cervical joints (total 32) were calculated. Flexion and extension were expressed mainly as pitch in 27 and 22 joints, respectively. Rotation appeared as predominantly roll in 13 joints, whereas lateral bending was represented as predominantly yaw in 1 and as roll or pitch in all other joints. Significant correlations between yaw, pitch, and roll were observed at individual cervical joints in 97% of all measurements, with the atlanto-occipital joint showing complete (100%) correlation. Most non-significant correlations occurred at the C5–C6 joint, while C6–C7 exhibited significantly lower correlation coefficients compared to other levels. The overall movement of the head and neck is not replicated at individual cervical joint levels and should be considered when evaluating equine necks in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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12 pages, 1140 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Does Low-Field MRI Tenography Improve the Detection of Naturally Occurring Manica Flexoria Tears in Horses?

by Anton D. Aßmann, José Suàrez Sànchez-Andrade, David Argüelles and Andrea S. Bischofberger

Animals 2025, 15(15), 2250; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152250 - 31 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1190

Abstract

Diagnosing digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) pathologies, particularly manica flexoria (MF) tears, can be challenging with standard imaging modalities. Standing low-field MRI tenography (MRIt) may improve the detection rate of MF tears. This study aimed to compare ultrasonography, contrast radiography, pre-contrast MRI, and MRIt to detect naturally occurring MF lesions in horses undergoing tenoscopy. Ten horses with a positive DFTS block, which underwent contrast radiography, ultrasonography, MRI, MRIt, and tenoscopy were included. Two radiologists evaluated the images and recorded whether an MF lesion was present and determined the lesion side. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated for each modality using tenoscopy as a reference. MRIt and contrast radiography detected MF lesions with the same frequency, both showing 71% sensitivity and 100% specificity. Pre-contrast MRI and ultrasonography detected MF lesions with a lower sensitivity (57%); however, the MRI (100%) demonstrated a higher specificity than ultrasonography (33%). Adding contrast in MRI changed the sensitivity from (4/7 lesions) 57% to (5/7 lesions) 71%, with a constant high specificity (100%). MRIt diagnoses MF tears with a similar sensitivity to contrast radiography, with the same specificity, but with the added benefit of lesion laterality detection. The combined advantages of the anatomical detail of the T1 sequence and the post-contrast hyperintense appearance of the fluid may help diagnose MF tears and identify intact MFs. However, this needs to be substantiated in a larger number of cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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12 pages, 675 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Application of Infrared Thermography in the Assessment of BEMER Physical Vascular Therapy on Body Surface Temperature in Racing Thoroughbreds: A Preliminary Study

by Karolina Nawrot, Maria Soroko-Dubrovina, Paulina Zielińska, Krzysztof Dudek and Kevin Howell

Animals 2024, 14(11), 1538; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14111538 - 23 May 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5174

Abstract

The study aimed to evaluate the impact of BEMER (Physical Vascular Therapy) on body surface temperature using infrared thermography (IRT) in the distal parts of the forelimbs in Thoroughbreds. The study tested the hypothesis that BEMER therapy leads to an increase in body surface temperature and blood vessel diameter in the distal parts of the forelimbs. The study involved 16 horses, split into 2 groups: active BEMER (n = 8) and sham (n = 8). The active BEMER group had BEMER boots applied to the distal parts of the forelimbs, whereas the sham group had BEMER boots applied without activation of the device. Both groups underwent IRT examination to detect changes in body surface temperature, followed by ultrasonographic examination to assess changes in vein and artery diameter before (BT) and just after (JAT) therapy. The IRT examination was repeated 15 min after BEMER therapy (15AT). There were no significant body surface temperature differences between BT and JAT in any regions of interest (ROIs) in either group. In the active BEMER group, the ROIs did not change significantly at 15AT, compared to the temperatures measured at BT (except for the hooves). At 15AT the temperature of all the ROIs (except the fetlock bone) dropped significantly in the sham group. In the ultrasonographic examination, there was a significant increase in vein and artery diameter in the study group JAT, whereas the sham group had a significant increase only in artery diameter JAT. These results suggest an effect of BEMER on stimulating blood circulation in the distal parts of the forelimbs in clinically healthy horses. IRT did not identify changes in skin surface temperature after BEMER therapy at the distal parts of the forelimbs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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Review

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16 pages, 301 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in the Clinical Diagnostics to Equine Back Pain: A Review of Imaging and Functional Modalities

by Natalia Domańska-Kruppa, Małgorzata Wierzbicka and Elżbieta Stefanik

Animals 2024, 14(5), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14050698 - 23 Feb 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8060

Abstract

Back pain is common in ridden horses. Back diseases in horses include Impinging Dorsal Spinous Processes, Ventral Spondylosis, Osteoarthritis of Articular Process, Intervertebral Discs Disease, Vertebral Fractures, Conformational Abnormalities, Desmopathy of the Supraspinous Ligament, Desmopathy of the Intraspinous Ligament, and Longissimus Muscle Strain. Back pain may also develop as a result of lameness (particularly hindlimb lameness). A poorly fitting saddle and an unbalanced rider are also considered important factors influencing the development of back pain in horses. The conventional diagnosis of equine back pain includes a clinical examination and diagnostic imaging examination using ultrasound, radiography, and thermography. Advanced diagnostic modalities of equine back pain involve the objectification of standard procedures through the use of algometers, a lameness locator, biometric mats, and the geometric morphometrics method. In addition to modern diagnostic methods, such as computed tomography and scintigraphy, advances in the diagnosis of equine back pain include the use of electromyography and functional electrical stimulation. The aim of this review article is to familiarize clinicians with the usefulness and capabilities of conventional diagnostic protocols and advanced diagnostic modalities. Although orthopedic examination and traditional diagnostic methods will remain the foundation of the diagnosis of back diseases, modern methods meet the growing expectations towards high-performance horses and allow for deeper diagnostics and objective monitoring of rehabilitation and training progress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Equine Musculoskeletal System: Advances and Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Imaging and Functional Research)

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