Offshore Geological Hazards: Charting the Course of Progress and Future Directions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Definition and Classification of Offshore Geological Hazards
Human Activities in Submarine Environments
- Submarine telecommunication cables are important offshore infrastructure and funnel 95% of all telephone and data communication. Approximately 378 subsea cables (total length of 1.2 million kilometers) (https://www.mapfreglobalrisks.com, accessed on 12 October 2020) rest on the seafloor, forming complex inter-continental, inter-peninsular, and island-continent networks https://www.submarinecablemap.com/, accessed on 3 February 2020). Some new deployments are designed to bury cables in the seafloor to protect them from trawlers, anchors, and turbidity currents [23].
- Ports and industrial installations, airports, residential and recreation buildings, artificial islands, wind farms, and fish harming, among others, are human-made structures occupying subaerial and submarine surfaces, and they will increase due to human expansion. These structures may be affected by geological processes, but they may also be affected by potential human-induced hazards because of the interaction between seafloor structures and environmental processes.
- Deep-sea mining has the potential to be an important submarine activity in the near future. This activity involves prospecting, exploitation, and extraction [24], and all three stages are subject to hazardous geological processes.
- Fisheries and transport are critical economic activities around the world. Fishing grounds and commercial routes (navigation) may be locally affected by active geological processes occurring on the seafloor.
- Hydrocarbon exploitation and transportation are performed by 53 countries on continental shelves and adjacent slopes, where the deployed infrastructure is placed on the seabed and interacts with geological processes during installation and operation [13].
- Gas and oil pipelines, in contrast to the exploitation platforms whose activities focus on the local seabed, cross different physiographic regions on the continental margins and are therefore affected by different hazardous geological processes, which may deform and rupture them. In 2016, operators planned nearly 4000 miles of offshore pipelines through 2020 (https://www.offshore-mag.com/pipelines/article/16754997/, accessed on 28 October 2020).
- Other common activities, such as sand recovery for the artificial nourishment of beaches, may represent hazards themselves because they may modify the sedimentary environment and natural processes.
3. Some Prehistorical and Historical Cases of Offshore Geohazard Events
4. Offshore Geohazards and Their Main Key Questions
4.1. Tectonic Earthquakes: Seismogenic Faults
4.2. Submarine Slope Instabilities
4.3. Submarine Volcanism
- (i)
- Subaerial eruptions close to the coastline affect the marine environment in different ways, as they can produce changes in the coastal configuration when lava flows pour into the sea forming a lava delta (e.g., [99]) (Figure 5b), collapse the volcanic edifice, or enter the sea of pyroclastic flows (e.g., [100]) (Figure 5a). Moreover, volcanic eruptions and dike intrusions can even cause slope sedimentary instabilities that enter the sea and trigger tsunami waves (e.g., [101] and references therein).
- (ii)
- (iii)
- Intermediate-water eruptions (approximately 300–600 mwd) are rarely observed, but they can be characterized by a peculiar eruptive style characterized by floating lava balloons or pumice emissions (Figure 5d). During these eruptions, lava globes can be expelled in a successive way that occurred in the recent submarine eruptions of Serreta (Terceira, Azores; [103] or Tagoro (Canary Islands) (Figure 5e).
- (iv)
- Deepwater eruptions (>600 mwd) are mostly effusive, and the associated lavas represent the most widespread surficial igneous rocks on Earth. Related studies have focused on basaltic lavas emplaced in mid-oceanic ridges, back-arc basins, intraplate seamounts, ocean volcanic islands, and plateaus. Three main types of submarine lavas can be distinguished according to their morphology and flow rates: pillow, lobate, and sheet [104,105]. For basaltic lavas, another important deposit is hyaloclastite occurring in both shallow and deep waters. The 2012 Havre eruption exhibited explosive activity in a deep-water sector (between 900 and 1100 mwd), producing a pumice raft approximately 400 km2 in size and an abundance of fine ash on the seafloor over the course of one day [106].
4.4. Fluid Flow Processes
4.5. Bottom Currents
4.6. Tsunamis
5. Scenarios with Multiple Geological Hazards
5.1. Tectonic Indentation Areas
5.2. Canyon Heads Close to Coast
5.3. Volcanic Islands
6. Conclusions: A Distinctive Multidisciplinary Approach to Study Offshore Geological Hazards
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Offshore Geohazard | Prehistorical and Historical Cases | Consequences |
---|---|---|
Earthquakes related to seismogenic faults | The 2011 Japan earthquake (North Pacific Ocean) of magnitude 9 (Mw) [26]. | It caused an up to 30-m-high tsunami that flooded 110 km of coastline. Nearly 16,000 people were killed, and more than 400,000 buildings collapsed. |
The 2010 Chile earthquake (South Pacific Ocean) magnitude of 8.8 Mw [27]. | It caused a tsunami with wave heights up to 30 m in the Chilean coastal region. It is the largest event along the South American Subduction Zone in half a century and produced 648 casualties. | |
The 2004 Indian earthquake (Indian Ocean) of magnitude of 9.3 Mw [28]. | It caused an up to 34 m-high-tsunami that produced an estimated 228 k casualties. This is one of the ten worst earthquakes in recorded history. | |
The Al-Hoceima earthquake (SW Mediterranean) 1993–1994, 2004, and 2016 seismic crisis [29]. | This event killed 464 people and caused 11.9 million Euros of economic losses in Spain. | |
The 1908 Messina earthquake (NW Mediterranean) of magnitude 7.1 (Mw) with the epicenter in the Messina Strait graben [30]. | It produced a local tsunami. It is the most destructive 20th and 21st century earthquake in Europe, with >80,000 deaths. | |
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake (North Pacific Ocean) of magnitude 8.3 (Mw) with the epicenter located on the San Andreas Fault [31]. | The economic impact was tremendous. The impact is assessed as US $524 million, and the earthquake left more than 3000 people dead and more than 28,000 buildings destroyed. | |
Slope instabilities | The 1979 Lomblen landslide (between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean) that generated a strong tsunami with heights of 7–9 m [32]. | It caused 539 causalities and another 700-missing people. |
The 1979 Nice submarine landslide (NW Mediterranean) related to the construction of the new Nice harbor [33]. | It generated a tsunami (wave heights to 3 m) and is probably one of the most important geological events to have occurred in France within the last 20 years. It caused casualties and considerable material damage [34]. | |
The 1929 Grand Banks slide (Northern Atlantic Ocean) was triggered by an earthquake (magnitude of 7.2 Ms) [35]. | It generated a tsunami that killed 28 people and severed several submarine communication cables. | |
The Storegga Slide (Norwegian Sea), approximately 8200 years ago [36,37] off the Norwegian coast. | It generated a tsunami that hit the west coast of Norway (run up 10–12 m), Scotland (4–6 m), Shetland (approx. 20–30 m), and the Faroes (0–10 m) [38]. | |
Volcanism eruptions and slope instabilities on volcano flanks | The 1950 AD Santorini active volcanic eruptions (Aegean Sea) [39]. | They produced debris flows on the flanks of Santorini Island that produced damage and causalities. |
On active Hawaiian volcanoes (Pacific Ocean), large, rapid flank movements often co-occur with large earthquakes. They were observed four times during the 19th and 20th centuries, each spaced approximately 50 years apart [40]. | They affected the quality of life of local people living on the islands and impacted on the islands’ economies. | |
The 2011 Hierro submarine eruption [41]. | It affected the quality of life of local people living on the island and impacted on the island’s economy, which was based primarily on tourism. | |
Active Azores volcanoes are affected by diffuse CO2 emissions related to hydrothermal activity [42]. | They may represent a public health risk, and occasionally family houses were evacuated when CO2 concentrations in the air reached 8 mol% | |
Fluid flow (gas, mud, and salt diapirs) | Events associated with active pockmarks (up to 15 m deep) on the seafloor of the off Patras and Aigion (northern Peleponnesos, Greece) [43]. | These pockmarks were found to be venting gas prior to the earthquake (the M 5.4) on 14 July 1993. |
Catastrophic gas escape during the exploration drilling in the German Bight of the North Sea in 1963, the J. Storm II in 1972 [44] and in the North Sea in 1990. | Gas escape formed large, deep pockmarks over very short periods. | |
Erosion, scour, and seabed mobility by bottom currents | The Arklow Bank Wind Farm, the best wind resources in the Irish Sea was subjected to overall seabed movement [45]. | Movement of the sandbank, channel migration, and overall erosion and accretion. Scouring was caused by the strong currents that flowed over the sandbank, often over 2 m/s. |
In the gravity-based foundations of the Frigg TP1 GBS, installed in fine sand soil at 104 m of water depth, in the North Sea [46,47]. | 2 m deep scour erosion at two corners. | |
Several submarine pipeline failures in the Mississippi River delta and the Gulf of Mexico [48,49]. | Seabed erosion by scouring around the pipe under the influence of currents caused the pipeline to be unsupported. |
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Ercilla, G.; Casas, D.; Alonso, B.; Casalbore, D.; Galindo-Zaldívar, J.; García-Gil, S.; Martorelli, E.; Vázquez, J.-T.; Azpiroz-Zabala, M.; DoCouto, D.; et al. Offshore Geological Hazards: Charting the Course of Progress and Future Directions. Oceans 2021, 2, 393-428. https://doi.org/10.3390/oceans2020023
Ercilla G, Casas D, Alonso B, Casalbore D, Galindo-Zaldívar J, García-Gil S, Martorelli E, Vázquez J-T, Azpiroz-Zabala M, DoCouto D, et al. Offshore Geological Hazards: Charting the Course of Progress and Future Directions. Oceans. 2021; 2(2):393-428. https://doi.org/10.3390/oceans2020023
Chicago/Turabian StyleErcilla, Gemma, David Casas, Belén Alonso, Daniele Casalbore, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Soledad García-Gil, Eleonora Martorelli, Juan-Tomás Vázquez, María Azpiroz-Zabala, Damien DoCouto, and et al. 2021. "Offshore Geological Hazards: Charting the Course of Progress and Future Directions" Oceans 2, no. 2: 393-428. https://doi.org/10.3390/oceans2020023