Important Flavonoids and Their Role as a Therapeutic Agent
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Effects of Flavonoids on Human Health
2.1. Anticancer Action
2.2. Antioxidant Activity
Plant (Family)—Local Name | Part of Plant | Phytochemical Screening | Total FC | Methods Used Antioxidant Assay | Values of Antioxidant Assay | Bioactivity | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tamarix aphylla L. (Tamaricaceae)—Athel tamarisk | Leaves | Flavonoid glycosides, carboxylic acid steroids, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, steroidal compounds, alkaloids, saponins | N/A | DPPH | N/A | Antidiabetic, Hypolipidemic, Antifungal, Antibacterial, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Wound Healing | [105] |
Oryza sativa (Poaceae)—Bramo, Serang and Menthi | Caryopsis | Phytosterols, vitamin B group and polyphenols, and polyphenols | N/A | DPPH | (Bramo) 15.25 ± 0.07, (Serang) 25.37 ± 0.07, Menthi (28.15 ± 0.19) | Antioxidant | [106] |
Diospyros kaki | peel | Vitamins, and flavonoids including catechin, epicatechin, and gallocatechin | N/A | DPPH, FRAP | DPPH (165.75 ± 1.57) FRAP (1609.56 ± 90.88) | Antioxidant | [107] |
Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae)—karamunting | Leaves and fruits | Terpenoids, phenolic compound, tannin, flavonoids, triterpenes and saponin | N/A | DAPPH | (Leaves) 82% at 50 ppm (Fruit ) 77% at 25 ppm | Antioxidant | [108] |
Rosa damascena (Rosaceae)—Damask rose | Rose water | Saponins, triterpenoids, tannins, fixed oil flavonoids | Reducing Power Ability (RPA) | 3.612 | Antioxidant, Skin protecting effect | [109] | |
Bauhinia variegate (Fabaceae)—orchid tree, mountain ebony | Leaves | Anthraquinone, and saponins, erpenoids and alkaloids | 11–222.67 mg QE/g | beta carotene bleaching assay. | 56.79% inhibition of Beta carotene at 200 ug/mL | Antibacterial, Anticancer, Antioxidant | [110] |
Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)—dead sea apple | Roots | N/A | 1.62 ± 0.05 mg QE/g | DPPH | 42–90% | Antioxidant, metal ion chelating ability | [111] |
Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)—heart-leaved moonseed, giloy | Whole plant | Tinocordioside, cordifolide A, palmatine, quercetin, heptacosanol, and syringin | 18.91 ± 0.21 mg QE/g | DPPH, MC, FRAP, SA, NO | 60–80% | Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activity | [112] |
Vernonia oligocephala (Asteraceae)—bicoloured-leaved vernonia, groenamarabossie | Roots | flavonoids, saponins, terpenoids, and phenolics | flavonoid 35 (97.35 mg QE/g) contents | DPPH | (% RSC) 90.93 ± 0.66 | Antioxidant and inhibitor of AChE, BChE | [113] |
2.3. Effects on the Cardiovascular System
Plants Whose FCC Have Cardio Protective Effect | Myocardial Injury | Animal/Cell Line Used for Experiment | In-Vivo/Ex-Vivo | Mechanism | p Value | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Euphorbia humifusa, Agrimomia pilosa, Juglans regia | Isoproterenol (ISO) | Male Wistar Rats | In-vivo | activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway | p < 0.01 | [140] |
Dracocephalum moldavica L (Figure 7, Right side) | Ischemia Reperfusion-induced | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | In-vivo | TFDM halted myocardial apoptosis as mediated by the PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. | p >0.05 | [141] |
Rutin | ischemia-reperfusion (MI/R) | Male Sprague-Dawley rats | In-vivo | SIRT1/Nrf2 signaling pathway is a possible therapeutic target for the treatment of oxidative stress and apoptosis related myocardial diseases | p < 0.01 | [142] |
Dalbergia stipulacea and Hymendictyon excelsum | N/A | Blood | E-vivo | the extracts produced anti-inflammatory effect due to surface area/volume ratio of cells, and this can be obtained through an extension of membrane or the reduction of the cells volume and an interaction with membrane proteins | p < 0.0001 | [143] |
Ulva lactuca (Figure 7, Left side) | cervical decapitation | Hypercholesterolemic mice | In vitro | TNF-a, IL-1b and IL-6 significantly decreased | p < 0.05 | [144] |
Clinopodium chinense | Intragastric ISO | Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) | In vivo and In vitro | TFCC safeguard in myocardial injury and increases the cellular antioxidant defense power by stimulating the phosphorylation of AKT, which subsequently triggered the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway | p < 0.05 | [145] |
Carya cathayensis | Hypoxia/Reoxygenation | H9c2 cell line | In vitro | Halt the cell apoptosis, which is possibly mediated by changes in the expression of miR-21, PTEN/Akt, and Bcl/Bax. | p < 0.01 | [146] |
Panax notoginseng, safflower, Carthamus tinctorius | isoproterenol (ISO)-induced MI | Sprague-Dawley rats | In vivo | attenuate the NF-κB signaling pathway, depress the expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and PLA2 | p < 0.05 | [147] |
Rhododendron simsii | Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion | Sprague-Dawley rat | In vivo | Inhibition of UTR and the further blocking of RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway. | p < 0.01 | [148] |
Potentilla reptans roots | ischemia/reperfusion | Male Wistar rats | In vitro | NO release, Nrf2 pathway, and antioxidant activity resulted into lowering of apoptotic index | N/A | [149] |
Gymnema sylvestre leaves | doxorubicin induced cardiac damage | Male Wistar rats | In vitro | pathological biochemical markers like creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), total cholesterol, triglycerides, uric acid, calcium, nitric oxide and melanoldehyde, and significantly raises the levels of endogenous protective antioxidant proteins | uric acid (p < 0.05) total cholesterol <0.05), triglycerides (p < 0.05) | [150] |
2.4. Effects on Nervous System
2.5. Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
2.6. Inhibition of Neuropathy
2.7. Stroke Prevention
2.8. Recovery of Injured Nerves and Anti-inflmmatory Properties
2.9. Antimalarial Properties
2.10. Antiviral Activities
2.11. Antibacterial Action
2.12. Antidiabetic Effects
2.13. Antifungal Properties
3. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Isolated from | Isolated Flavonoids | Total Flavonoid Content | Type of Cancer | Mechanism of Action | Anticancer Assay | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) | Silybin or silibinin | N/A | cervical (HeLa) and hepatoma (Hep3B) human cancer cells | Inhibits hypoxia-inducible factor-1a and mTOR/p70S6K/4E-BP1 signaling pathway | N/A | [65] |
Silybin | Modified Flavonoids silybin derivatives namely 2,3-dehydrosilybin (DHS), 7-O-methylsilybin (7OM), 7-Ogalloylsilybin (7OG), 7,23-disulphatesilybin (DSS), 7-O-palmitoylsilybin (7OP), and 23-O-palmitoylsilybin (23OP) | N/A | human bladder cancer HTB9, colon cancer HCT116 and prostate carcinoma PC3 cells | silybin strongly synergizes human prostate carcinoma cells to doxorubicin-, cisplatin-, carboplatin-, and mitoxantrone-induced growth inhibition and apoptotic death | N/A | [66] |
Silybum marianum | Silybin nanosuspension | N/A | human prostatic carcinoma PC-3 cell line | silybin nanosuspension induced PC-3 cell growth inhibition and Silybin nanosuspension-induced apoptosis may occur in the G1 phase. | N/A | [67] |
Silybum marianum | Silibinin | N/A | MCF-7 breast cancer cells. | blocks rapamycin signaling with a concomitant reduction in translation initiation | N/A | [68] |
Cnidoscolus quercifolius | N/A | N/A | prostate (PC3 and PC3-M) and breast (MCF-7) cancer cells | N/A | N/A | [69] |
Lasiosiphon eriocephalus | N/A | N/A | HeLa and MCF-7 | N/A | N/A | [70] |
Onions, Kale, French beans, lettuce etc | Quercetin | N/A | ovarian PA-1 cancer cell line | quercetin induces the mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic pathway, and thus, it inhibits the growth of 17 metastatic ovarian cancer cells | N/A | [71] |
Stachys tmolea | Erbascoside, chlorogenic acid, andapigenin7-glucoside | Total flavonoids (mg QEs/g dry plant) 4.98 ± 0.06 | N/A | N/A | N/A | [72] |
Cassia occidentalis, Callistemon viminalis, Cleome viscosa and Mimosa hamata | N/A | C. viminalis (46.41 ± 2.23 mg of CAE/g DW) and M. hamata (40.33 ± 1.16 mg of CAE/g DW) followed by C. viscosa leaves (36.22 ± 0.74 mg of CAE/g DW), C. occidentalis (35.32 ± 0.70 mg of CAE/g DW) and C. viscosa root (33.63 ± 1.25 mg of CAE/g DW) | human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 | anti-angiogenic activity via inhibition of blood constituents density in vessels | SRB assay | [73] |
Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra | N/A | N/A | human cancer cell lines (colon cancer cell line SW480, liver cancer cell line HepG2, cervical cancer line HeLa, and lung cancer line A549 | N/A | MTT assay | [74] |
Melodorum siamensis | N/A | N/A | pancreatic β cell line MIN-6 cells | Nuclear factor-κB inhibition | N/A | [75] |
Type of Flavonoid | Inhibition | Lead Compound | Mechanism | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Galangin, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, fisetin, apigenin, luteolin and rutin | BChE | Galangin | Docking study showed that flavonoids bind to the BChE active site by forming multiple hydrogen bonds and π-π interactions. | [176] |
7-Aminoalkyl-Substituted Flavonoid Derivatives | AChE and BChE | 2-(naphthalen-1-yl)-7-(8-(pyrrolidin-1-yl) octyloxy)-4H-chromen-4-one | Compound targeted Catalytic active site (CAS) and the peripheral anionic site (PAS) of AChE | [177] |
Plectranthus scutellarioides flavonoids | AChE and BChE | flavonoids apigenin 7-O-(3′′-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucuronide, apigenin 5-O-(3′′-O-acetyl)-β-d-glucuronide | N/A | [178] |
Salvia hispanica | AChE and BChE | Colored chia seeds | Rich in polyphenols, quercetin and 23 isoquercetin with a positive correlation with inhibition of ChEs activity | [179] |
Nardostachys jatamansi | AChE and BChE | Leaves and rhizome of plant extracts | Presence of phytochemicals such as flavonoid and phenols | [180] |
Leiotulus dasyanthus | AChE and BChE | pimpinellin (66.55%) and umbelliferone (40.99%) | N/A | [181] |
Arceuthobium | AChE and BChE | Ethanolic Plant extract | Higher flavonoid phenol content exhibited higher inhibition by protecting the brain against oxidative stress | [182] |
Salvia (sage) species | cholinesterase inhibition | Dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of the aerial parts of Salvia cryptantha | Strong inhibitory activity of the CH2Cl2 extract of aerial parts of S. cryptantha could also be presumed to emerge from its terpene content and synergic type interaction | [183] |
Woundwort plants (Stachys species) flavonoids | AChE (MeOH), BChE inhibitory (EtOAc) | Stachys cretica | Apigenin, Hesperidin and Kaempferol have a positive correlation with inhibition of AChE and BChE | [174] |
Plant (Family)—Local Name | Part of Plant | Phytochemical Constituents | Isolated Compounds | Assay | Flavonoid Inhibition | Mechanism | Biological Activity | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lotus plumule (Nymphaeaceae) | Fresh plant | Alkaloids and flavonoids, polysaccharides, tannins, proteins and fats | N/A | Cell viability assay, Griess reagent protocol, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay | N/A | Inhibit the production of NO radicals, PGE2 and TNF-α and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6 | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory | [216] |
Cirsium japonicum (Asteraceae) | Dried powder | Phenolic acids, lignans, polyacetylenes, polysaccharide, sterols, triterpenes, sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids | flavonoids, saponins, polysaccharides, essential oil, coumarin and alkaloids | Nitric oxide (NO) and IL-6 measurement Quantitative real-time PCR analysis, Western blot | Flavonoids 94.2% NO inhibition | Flavonoids, saponin and essential oil inhibit NO production | Anti-inflammation, anti-cancer and anti-atherosclerosis | [217] |
Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) (Sapindaceae) | Dried Seeds | oligosaccharides, phenolics, flavonoids | fifteen flavonoids | NO inhibitory assay | IC50 of Extracted flavonoid 43.56 ± 2.17 μM | N/A | Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant | [218] |
Dillenia suffruticosa- simpoh air (Dilleniaceae) | Fresh leaves | triterpenoids, flavonoids, and their glycosides, the anthraquinone glycosides, phenolic derivatives, and tannins | triterpenoids betulinic acid, koetjapic acid, flavonoids vitexin, tiliroside, kaempferol | In vivo rat model of acute λ-carrageenan-induced paw oedema | Vitexin (27.97 ± 0.01% inhibition of COX-1 and 45.35 ± 0.01 of COX-2 at 200 μg/mL), (kaempferol) 9.89 ± 0.02 COX1 ± COX-2 49.25 ± 0.02, (tiliroside) COX-1 19.79 ± 0.00, COX-2 37.59 ± 0.01 | potent inhibition of COX-2 than COX-1 reaction | Anti-inflammation | [219] |
naringenin, naringenin chalcone, and quercetin | arachidonic acid-(AA) and tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-(TPA) induced ear edema | anti-inflammatory and antiallergic activity | [220] | |||||
Severinia buxifolia (Rutaceae) | Branches | acridone alkaloids, tetranorterpenoids, coumarins, limonoids, and sesquiterpenes | N/A | albumin denaturation, membrane stabilization, and antiproteinase activity | The S. buxifolia methanolic extracts IC50 value against albumin denaturation was (μg/mL) 28.86 ± 4.80 | It is possible that bioactive compounds in the extract protect lysosomal membranes activation of phospholipases. for the anti-inflammatory activity of S. buxifolia extracts via a membrane stabilization effect | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory | [221] |
Scutellaria moniliorrhiza (Lamiaceae) | Herb | N/A | Four flavonoid compounds | Bioassay using rats | Inhibitory activities with IC50 values being in the range of 2.29 e3.03 mM. | N/A | anti-inflammatory activities, inhibitory activities against aldose reductase | [222] |
Citrus reticulata—Orange | Dried peel | Flavonoids, Phenolic acids | N/A | Levels of iNOS and COX-2 mRNA in RAW 264.7 cells were measured using RT-PCR | N/A | highest content of nobiletin and tangeretin, also produced a strong affinity to inhibit iNOS and COX-2 expression in LPS and IFN-c induced Raw 264.7 cells. We attribute this observation to the presence of a greater number of methoxy groups in nobiletin compared to the other flavonoid species studied. | antioxidant and anti-inflammatory | [223] |
Black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) (Moraceae) | Fruit | N/A | N/A | ELISA to detect the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and NO in the serum of mice | Ear edema 65.2% inhibited | inhibitory activities of proinflammatory cytokines | Antinociceptive, Anti-inflammatory | [224] |
Citrus bergamia—bergamot (Rutaceae) | Juice | Neohesperidin, naringin, melitidin, neoeriocitrin, hesperetin, naringenin | N/A | N/A | Inhibit intestinal inflammation by reducing: ROS/RNS production—inflammatory NF-κB and MAPKs pathways—pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and neutrophil infiltration—adhesion molecules expression—oxidative and nitrosative stress—tissue injury | Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities | [225] |
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Ullah, A.; Munir, S.; Badshah, S.L.; Khan, N.; Ghani, L.; Poulson, B.G.; Emwas, A.-H.; Jaremko, M. Important Flavonoids and Their Role as a Therapeutic Agent. Molecules 2020, 25, 5243. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225243
Ullah A, Munir S, Badshah SL, Khan N, Ghani L, Poulson BG, Emwas A-H, Jaremko M. Important Flavonoids and Their Role as a Therapeutic Agent. Molecules. 2020; 25(22):5243. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225243
Chicago/Turabian StyleUllah, Asad, Sidra Munir, Syed Lal Badshah, Noreen Khan, Lubna Ghani, Benjamin Gabriel Poulson, Abdul-Hamid Emwas, and Mariusz Jaremko. 2020. "Important Flavonoids and Their Role as a Therapeutic Agent" Molecules 25, no. 22: 5243. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25225243