Determination of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the Atmospheric Aerosol of Central East Antarctica at Dome C (Concordia Station)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Back Trajectories and Air Masses Arriving at Dome C
2.2. Metal Contents and Temporal Profiles
2.2.1. Cadmium
2.2.2. Lead
2.2.3. Copper
2.2.4. Relationship between Contaminated-on-Background Excesses of the Three Metals
- excess mass ratio from content in mass fraction Cd:Pb:Cu = 1:28:1600 (with Cu/Pb = ~57);
- excess mass ratio from content in atmospheric concentration Cd:Pb:Cu = 1:21:800 (with Cu/Pb = ~38).
2.3. Comparison with Antarctic Literature Data
2.4. Statistical Analysis (Correlation and Principal Component Analysis)
2.5. Metal Contents in Station Fuels and Interpretation of Data
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. The Site and the Sampling Strategy
3.2. Meteorology and Air Backward Trajectories
3.3. Laboratories, Apparatus, Reagents, and General Procedures
3.3.1. Laboratories and Apparatus
3.3.2. Reagents and Standards
3.3.3. Decontamination Procedures
3.4. Sample Treatments
3.5. Voltammetric Analysis
3.6. Quality Control and Statistical Analysis
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
References
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Sampling Point | Sample No. | Mass Fraction (±SD) | Atmospheric Concentration (±SD) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cd (µg g−1) | Pb (mg g−1) | Cu (mg g−1) | Cd (pg m−3) | Pb (pg m−3) | Cu (ng m−3) | |||
Concordia | 1 | 7.0 ± 1.2 | 0.14 ± 0.02 | 5.4 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 62 ± 7 | 2.4 ± 0.3 | |
2 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 3.9 ± 0.6 | 0.40 ± 0.13 | 31 ± 3 | 1.1 ± 0.2 | ||
3 | 5.2 ± 0.5 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.92 ± 0.06 | 2.0 ± 0.2 | 44 ± 6 | 0.36 ± 0.04 | ||
Astrophysics T. 1 | 1 | 6.6 ± 1.6 | 0.47 ± 0.06 | 20 ± 2 | 0.70 ± 0.18 | 50 ± 7 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | |
2 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 1.06 ± 0.14 | 0.25 ± 0.09 | 23 ± 2 | 0.20 ± 0.03 | ||
3 | 1.0 ± 0.5 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 1.53 ± 0.12 | 0.09 ± 0.04 | 12 ± 1 | 0.14 ± 0.02 | ||
Astrophysics T. 2 | 1 | 8.4 ± 1.0 | 0.20 ± 0.03 | 0.88 ± 0.28 | 0.98 ± 0.14 | 24 ± 4 | 0.10 ± 0.03 | |
2 | 1.3 ± 0.4 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.17 ± 0.03 | 0.20 ± 0.06 | 15 ± 2 | 0.027 ± 0.004 |
Area Station/site | Period | Metal Atmospheric Concentration, pg m−3 | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cd Average ± SD (min-max) | Pb Average ± SD (min-max) | Cu Average ± SD (min-max) | |||
Antarctic Plateau | |||||
Dome C | Summer 2005–2006 | 0.24 ± 0.13 a (0.09–3.1) | 21 ± 8 a (12–62) | 120 ± 70 a (27–2400) | This work |
South Pole | Summer 1970–1971 | - | 630 ± 300 (<190–1200) | 36 ± 19 (25–64) | [31] |
South Pole | Summer 1974–1975 | <15 | - | 29 ± 17 | [32] |
South Pole | Summer 1974–1975 | ≤18 | 27 ± 10 (W) b 76 ± 40 (N) b | 29 ± 17 | [33] |
South Pole | Summers 1971–1978 | 49 ± 38 | - | 59 ± 47 | [34] |
Winters 1975–1976 | <200 | - | 79 ± 16 | ||
South Pole | Summers 1979–1983 | 110 ± 60 | - | 190 ± 130 | [35] |
Winters 1979–1983 | 50 ± 40 | - | 130 ± 80 | ||
South Pole | November 2000–January 2001 | - | <32 c | - | [36] |
South Pole | November 2000–January 2001 | - | 30 ± 10 | - | [37] |
South Pole | November–December 2003 | - | 180 ± 40 | - | [37] |
Antarctic Peninsula | |||||
Spaatz Island Plateau site Rothera | Summer 1979–1980 | 3.5 ± 0.8 3.1 ± 2.1 5.4 ± 0.7 | 226 ± 35 79 ± 24 153 ± 60 | - - - | [119] |
Beethoven Peninsula | Summer 1982–1983 | <1.1 | <8.5 | 11.3 ± 6.2 | [120] |
Gipps Ice Rice | Summer 1984–1985 | 0.06 ± 0.1 | 4.7 ± 0.8 | 1.0 ± 1.0 | [121] |
Comandante Ferraz | Summers1985–1988 | - | 800 d | 690 d | [14] |
Winters 1985–1988 | - | 830 d | 1200 d | ||
Overall 1985–1988 | - | 830 d | 990 d | ||
Comandante Ferraz | Summers1985–1993 | 1200 d | 3450 d | [15] | |
Winters 1985–1993 | - | 970 d | 2740 d | ||
Overall 1985–1993 | - | 1060 d | 3010 d | ||
King Sejong | January 2000–December 2001 | 1.3 ± 3 (0.07–16.7) | 41 ± 54.5 (0.71–232) | 143 ± 471 (2.0–2413) | [49] |
Antarctic Coast or Southern Ocean | |||||
Ekström Ice Shelf | April, May, December 1983 | - | 17 ± 9 | - | [122] |
Georg von Neumayer | Febuary 1983–December 1984 | - | 11 ± 1.5 | - | [123] |
Antarctic Ocean (Atlantic) includes Georg von Neumayer and Filchner Ice Shelf | Summer 1989–1990 | 26 ± 18 | 328 ± 269 | 163 ± 85 | [124] |
Antarctic Ocean | Summer 1986–1987 | 20 | 1100 | 2300 | [125] |
Antarctic Ocean | 1989–1990 | 105 | 269 | - | [126] |
Southern Ocean | Summer 1999–2000 | 40 | 230 | 700 | [127] |
Southern Ocean coastal | Summer 2010–2011 | 4 (0–20) | - | - | [128] |
Coastal East Antarctica | Summer 2010–2011 | 17(0–50) | - | - | [128] |
Southern Ocean | Summer 2011–2012 | 17 ± 29 | 127 ± 98 | 957 ± 638 | [129] |
McMurdo Hut Point (downwind) | Summer 1995–1996 Summer 1996–1997 Total summers 1995–1997 | - - - | 1244 ± 2513 389 ± 541 851 ± 1915 | 194 ± 260 183 ± 104 189 ± 202 | [28] |
McMurdo Radar Sat (upwind) | Summer 1995–1996 Summer 1996–1997 Total summers 1995–1997 | - - - | 620 ± 1048 300 ± 438 470 ± 827 | 243 ± 304 152 ± 141 200 ± 244 | [28] |
Maitri | Summer 1990 | - | 306 ± 68 | 704 ± 339 | [130] |
Zhongshan Station | March 1998–Febuary 1999 | 70 | 559 | 1280 | [131] |
Zhongshan Station | March 1998–November 1999 | 47 | 431 | 778 | [132] |
Prydz Bay | Summer 1999–2000 | 30 | 80 | 460 | [127] |
Mario Zucchelli (formerly Terra Nova Bay) Faraglione Camp | Summer 2000–2001 | - | 16.7 (9.7–38.7) | 422 (86–641) | [45] |
Summer 2001–2002 | - | 15.0 (6.8–48.7) | 394 (121–1102) | [45] | |
Summer 2010–2011 | - | 22.5 e | 32.5 e | [47] | |
Summers 1988–2002 | - | 10 ± 3 | - | [133] | |
Summer 2000–2001 | 3.4 ± 2.2 f (0.55–6.3) | 24 ± 17 f (8.7–48) | 266 ± 103 f (72–365) | [30] | |
Summer 2000–2001 | 0.14–19 g | 17–36 g | 177–436 g | [53] | |
Summer 2000–2001 | 9.5 ± 13.1 g (0.93–39) | 33 ± 16 g (17–60) | 340 ± 150 g (88–480) | [115] | |
Larsemann Hills Antarctic Coast | Summer 2009–2010 | - | 260 ± 180 | 2190 ± 530 | [43] |
Larsemann Hills Southern Ocean | Summer 2009–2010 | - | 580 ± 190 | 9020 ± 5800 | [43] |
Metals | Mass Fraction | Atmospheric Concentration | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
r | p-Value (*) | r | p-Value (*) | ||
Cd-Pb | 0.50 | 0.10 | 0.83 | 0.006 | |
Cd-Cu | 0.38 | 0.17 | 0.57 | 0.071 | |
Pb-Cu | 0.93 | 0.0004 | 0.87 | 0.003 |
Metals | Background Samples | Contamination Samples | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mass Fraction | Atmospheric Conc. | Mass Fraction | Atmospheric Conc. | ||||||||
r | p-Value * | r | p-Value* | r | p-Value * | r | p-Value * | ||||
Cd-Pb | −0.69 | 0.16 | 0.97 | 0.016 | 0.12 | 0.44 | 0.65 | 0.19 | |||
Cd-Cu | 0.33 | 0.34 | 0.86 | 0.072 | −0.084 | 0.46 | 0.34 | 0.33 | |||
Pb-Cu | 0.17 | 0.42 | 0.88 | 0.062 | 0.94 | 0.032 | 0.87 | 0.064 |
Regression | Total Dataset | Separate Datasets | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
from Mass Fraction from atmospheric conc. | Background Samples from Mass Fraction from atmospheric conc. | Contamination Samples from Mass Fraction from atmospheric conc. | ||
Pb vs. Cd | 14 | 64 | 9.4 | |
20 | −58 | 15 | ||
Cu vs. Cd | 510 | 3300 | 370 | |
810 | 3000 | −570 | ||
Cu vs. Pb | 47 | 51 | 65 | |
49 | 18 | 52 |
Fuel | Metal Contents µg metal/kg fuel | Metal Ratios µg metal A/µg metal B | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cd | Pb | Cu | Pb/Cd | Cu/Cd | Cu/Pb | ||
SAB diesel fuel | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 10 ± 1 | 70 ± 7 | 14 ± 4 | 100 ± 30 | 7 ± 1 | |
Unleaded gasoline | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 65 ± 3 | 101 ± 9 | 65 ± 13 | 101 ± 22 | 1.6 ± 0.2 | |
Jet A-1 fuel | 7 ± 3 | 80 ± 2 | 192 ± 17 | 11 ± 5 | 27 ± 12 | 2.4 ± 0.2 |
Field Blank Filter | Metal Concentrations (Mean ± SD) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Cd (ng L−1) | Pb (ng L−1) | Cu (µg L−1) | |
Concordia, blank 1 | 10.0 ± 0.3 (n = 3) | 84 ± 5 (n = 4) | 0.39 ± 0.02 (n = 5) |
Concordia, blank 2 | 9.4 ± 0.8 (n = 4) | 82 ± 8 (n = 4) | 0.34 ± 0.03 (n = 4) |
Astrophysics T. 1, blank 1 | 10.1 ± 1.0 (n = 3) | 75 ± 7 (n = 3) | 0.34 ± 0.02 (n = 3) |
Astrophysics T. 1, blank 2 | 9.4 ± 1.8 (n = 3) | 80 ± 9 (n = 3) | 0.40 ± 0.03 (n = 3) |
Astrophysics T. 2, blank 1 | 10.7 ± 0.3 (n = 3) | 82 ± 4 (n = 3) | 0.34 ± 0.02 (n = 4) |
Astrophysics T. 2, blank 2 | 10.0 ± 1.8 (n = 3) | 76 ± 9 (n = 4) | 0.37 ± 0.03 (n = 3) |
Weighted mean ± SD i.e., blank to be subtracted | 10 ± 1 (n = 19) | 80 ± 7 (n = 21) | 0.36 ± 0.02 (n = 22) |
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Illuminati, S.; Annibaldi, A.; Truzzi, C.; Mantini, C.; Conca, E.; Malandrino, M.; Giglione, G.; Fanelli, M.; Scarponi, G. Determination of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the Atmospheric Aerosol of Central East Antarctica at Dome C (Concordia Station). Molecules 2021, 26, 1997. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26071997
Illuminati S, Annibaldi A, Truzzi C, Mantini C, Conca E, Malandrino M, Giglione G, Fanelli M, Scarponi G. Determination of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the Atmospheric Aerosol of Central East Antarctica at Dome C (Concordia Station). Molecules. 2021; 26(7):1997. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26071997
Chicago/Turabian StyleIlluminati, Silvia, Anna Annibaldi, Cristina Truzzi, Caterina Mantini, Eleonora Conca, Mery Malandrino, Giada Giglione, Matteo Fanelli, and Giuseppe Scarponi. 2021. "Determination of Cd, Pb, and Cu in the Atmospheric Aerosol of Central East Antarctica at Dome C (Concordia Station)" Molecules 26, no. 7: 1997. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26071997