Microwave Irradiation and Glutamic Acid-Assisted Phytotreatment of Textile and Surgical Industrial Wastewater by Sorghum
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Seed Germination Potential under Microwave Radiation
2.2. Morphological Characteristics
2.3. Biochemical Characteristics
2.4. Soluble Protein and SPAD Value
2.5. ROS Content in Sorghum
2.6. Response of Antioxidants in Sorghum
2.7. Heavy Metals Concentration and Accumulation in Sorghum
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Growth Conditions and Experimental Setup
4.2. Analysis of Morpho-Physiological Response in Plants
4.3. Determination of Antioxidant Enzymes, SPAD Value, and Soluble Protein Content
4.4. Evaluation of Electrolyte Leakage (EL), Malondialdehyde (MDA), and Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2
4.5. Assessment of Heavy Metals Concentration
4.6. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
References
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Wastewater Conc. | Cd Concentration (µg g−1) | Cd Accumulation (µg Plant−1) | ||||||||
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0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | 0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | |
Treatments | Leaf | Leaf | ||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 u | 136.81 ± 15.04 t | 438.33 ± 20.20 o | 757.67 ± 15.01 i | 1035 ± 8 d | 0.04 ± 0.02 q | 1256.29 ± 170.59 p | 3203 ± 255.37 mn | 3838.8 ± 113.00 lm | 3209.33 ± 128.30 mn |
MR 30 | 0.00 ± 0.00 u | 171.66 ± 12.58 t | 497.66 ± 13.01 n | 812.67 ± 15.04 h | 1066 ± 7.94 cd | 0.07 ± 0.04 q | 1806.66 ± 218.30 op | 4065.1 ± 163.57 klm | 5121.8 ± 256.95 hij | 4442.36 ± 192.21 jkl |
G.A 5 | 0.03 ± 0.02 u | 216.66 ± 15.27 s | 537.33 ± 12.50 m | 869.33 ± 18.00 g | 1092.33 ± 7.02 c | 0.48 ± 0.30 q | 2566.66 ± 238.60 no | 4872.66 ± 170.98 ijk | 6320.16 ± 348.77 efg | 5680.6 ± 145.62 ghi |
G.A 10 | 0.05 ± 0.01 u | 266.67 ± 12.58 r | 583 ± 9.16 l | 917.33 ± 10.50 f | 1145.34 ± 15.01 b | 0.84 ± 0.22 q | 3442.83 ± 254.25 lmn | 6124.5 ± 385.81 fgh | 7462.033 ± 225.17 cd | 7064.4 ± 266.35 def |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.08 ± 0.00 u | 310.67 ± 16.01 q | 631.34 ± 15.04 k | 943.34 ± 8.08 f | 1195.66 ± 10.06 a | 1.38 ± 0.09 q | 4447.66 ± 120.60 jkl | 7150.33 ± 238.75 de | 8808 ± 560.63 b | 8768.66 ± 702.66 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.00 u | 353.33 ± 13.50 p | 673.33 ± 13.50 j | 984.33 ± 13.01 e | 1231.33 ± 15.04 a | 1.71 ± 0.09 q | 5413.33 ± 107.50 ghij | 8304.66 ± 800.34 bc | 10167 ± 449.16 a | 10256.33 ± 607.15 a |
Stem | Stem | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 v | 160 ± 20 u | 623.33 ± 17.56 o | 1036.67 ± 20.55 j | 1369.33 ± 10.06 e | 0.07 ± 0.02 q | 2346.66 ± 313.90 p | 8207.5 ± 302.37 lm | 12482.1 ± 819.41 ij | 13512 ± 399.43 ghi |
MR 30 | 0.00 ± 0.00 v | 230 ± 25 t | 683.67 ± 16.04 n | 1080.33 ± 15.50 ij | 1415.67 ± 15.04 de | 0.11 ± 0.03 q | 3825 ± 306.47 op | 9685.5 ± 309.73 kl | 14399.33 ± 454.31 gh | 16515.67 ± 824.14 ef |
G.A 5 | 0.02 ± 0.01 v | 297.66 ± 20.40 s | 743 ± 18.08 m | 1134.67 ± 20.40 hi | 1467.66 ± 11.71 cd | 0.39 ± 0.18 q | 5402 ± 324.22 no | 11070.5 ± 288.99 jk | 17251.4 ± 697.76 e | 19372.8 ± 1054.41 d |
G.A 10 | 0.05 ± 0.01 v | 361.67 ± 20.21 r | 783.66 ± 13.05 m | 1186 ± 6.55 gh | 1523.33 ± 21.73 bc | 1.16 ± 0.29 q | 6932.5 ± 412.39 mn | 12695.67 ± 357.21 hij | 19610.67 ± 702.446 d | 21826.67 ± 593.78 c |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.07 ± 0.01 v | 433.33 ± 30.13 q | 845.33 ± 17.89 l | 1235.33 ± 11.06 fg | 1573 ± 11.78 b | 1.17 ± 0.30 q | 8879.16 ± 567.79 l | 14799.17 ± 733.41 fg | 22651.67 ± 905.45 c | 24851.4 ± 429.32 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.01 v | 524.66 ± 30.27 p | 920.66 ± 22.72 k | 1277.33 ± 9.29 f | 1650 ± 32.78 a | 2.20 ± 0.08 q | 11473.33 ± 692.30 jk | 17070.4 ± 877.58 e | 25118.33 ± 622.82 b | 28598.33 ± 1035.78 a |
Root | Root | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.02 ± 0.01 r | 293.76 ± 11.93 q | 910 ± 20 m | 1645 ± 15 h | 2055 ± 18.02 de | 0.169 ± 0.08 m | 2146.49 ± 166.45 l | 5613 ± 237 ij | 6911 ± 392.00 fghi | 6506.16 ± 181.94 hi |
MR 30 | 0.03 ± 0.01 r | 380 ± 20 pq | 1000 ± 18.02 m | 1731.67 ± 30.14 h | 2136.67 ± 25.16 cd | 0.281 ± 0.09 m | 3118.66 ± 240.01 kl | 6735.83 ± 327.96 ghi | 8316 ± 490.11 ef | 7477.33 ± 175.28 fgh |
G.A 5 | 0.06 ± 0.01 r | 463.33 ± 25.16 p | 1136.67 ± 50.33 l | 1838.33 ± 37.52 g | 2210 ± 30 bc | 0.69 ± 0.17 m | 4297.66 ± 347.91 jk | 8268 ± 647.70 efg | 10053.33 ± 483.45 cd | 9058 ± 285.88 de |
G.A 10 | 0.07 ± 0.01 r | 566.67 ± 27.53 o | 1326.67 ± 25.16 k | 1888.33 ± 36.17 fg | 2295 ± 35 b | 0.89 ± 0.20 m | 5593.83 ± 356.00 ij | 10529.67 ± 612.51 cd | 11327.83 ± 93.53 c | 10784.17 ± 405.35 c |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.08 ± 0.01 r | 635 ± 18.02 no | 1436 ± 67 ± 45.09 j | 1965 ± 25 ef | 2398.33 ± 50.08 a | 1.02 ± 0.13 m | 6766.66 ± 195.53 ghi | 13467.33 ± 924.91 b | 13624 ± 286.54 b | 13664 ± 466.26 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.01 r | 725 ± 40.92 n | 1538.33 ± 25.65 i | 1991.67 ± 24.66 e | 2473.34 ± 76.53 a | 1.23 ± 0.18 m | 8275.16 ± 103.39 efg | 16144.17 ± 509.53 a | 15735.83 ± 484.71 a | 16100.83 ± 1724.46 a |
Wastewater Conc. | Cu Concentration (µg g−1) | Cu Accumulation (µg Plant−1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | 0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | |
Treatments | Leaf | Leaf | ||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 t | 107.66 ± 11.23 s | 259.67 ± 5.50 n | 407.66 ± 12.85 i | 634 ± 9.54 e | 0.03 ± 0.02 o | 985.33 ± 82.28 n | 1895.33 ± 70.99 jk | 2064.53 ± 20.70 klm | 1965.433 ± 71.86 klm |
MR 30 | 0.00 ± 0.00 t | 133.67 ± 7.02 rs | 286.33 ± 12.22 mn | 446 ± 19.52 h | 660 ± 15.39 e | 0.07 ± 0.02 o | 1402.16 ± 65.10 mn | 2337.76 ± 86.62 jkl | 2808.6 ± 113.45 ghij | 2749.26 ± 91.84 ij |
G.A 5 | 0.03 ± 0.00 t | 152.66 ± 11.06 qr | 310.66 ± 8.50 lm | 478.33 ± 6.43 gh | 716.66 ± 18.50 d | 0.48 ± 0.06 o | 1804.83 ± 98.61 lm | 2816.93 ± 95.17 ghij | 3475.6 ± 117.76 efg | 3726.06 ± 87.43 ef |
G.A 10 | 0.05 ± 0.00 t | 173 ± 8 pq | 326.67 ± 5.86 kl | 500.34 ± 11.67 g | 780.33 ± 13.01 c | 0.84 ± 0.07 o | 2230.36 ± 74.67 jkl | 3429.66 ± 165.86 efgh | 4068.8 ± 87.67 de | 4811.23 ± 94.46 c |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.07 ± 0.01 t | 194.34 ± 10.26 op | 346 ± 7.93 jk | 536.66 ± 12.09 f | 829.66 ± 13.01 b | 1.16 ± 0.10 o | 2788.33 ± 242.92 hij | 3923.33 ± 268.61 ef | 5004.33 ± 196.72 c | 6080 ± 397.93 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.08 ± 0.01 t | 218.66 ± 1.52 o | 372.66 ± 7.02 j | 564.33 ± 10.26 f | 881.67 ± 15.01 a | 1.46 ± 0.18 o | 3353.33 ± 145.11 fghi | 4600.66 ± 500.38 cd | 5834.33 ± 411.86 b | 7352.33 ± 626.62 a |
Stem | Stem | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 t | 127.33 ± 11.67 s | 283 ± 8.18 n | 431 ± 17.08 i | 656.33 ± 12.22 e | 0.04 ± 0.04 p | 1868.33 ± 200.64 o | 3726.5 ± 147.63 lm | 5184.1 ± 252.73 ij | 6474.4 ± 101.00 g |
MR 30 | 0.00 ± 0.00 t | 153.73 ± 7.12 rs | 305 ± 10.58 mn | 466.33 ± 19.00 h | 681.66 ± 13.31 e | 0.11 ± 0.03 p | 2562.46 ± 156.19 no | 4321.5 ± 196.36 kl | 6211.33 ± 123.78 gh | 7957.66 ± 539.62 ef |
G.A 5 | 0.05 ± 0.01 t | 172.66 ± 11.06 qr | 331 ± 8.71 lm | 498.34 ± 6.42 g | 733 ± 14.42 d | 1.05 ± 0.31 p | 3142.16 ± 329.86 mn | 4931.5 ± 120.53 ijk | 7575.2 ± 226.81 f | 9668.66 ± 334.23 d |
G.A 10 | 0.07 ± 0.01 t | 193 ± 8 pq | 347.66 ± 5.77 kl | 521 ± 11.13 g | 797 ± 8.71 c | 1.44 ± 0.21 p | 3697.83 ± 109.06 lm | 5630.86 ± 25.74 hi | 8611.2 ± 184.82 e | 11425.67 ± 545.23 c |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.08 ± 0.01 t | 214.33 ± 10.26 op | 365 ± 8.18 jk | 557.66 ± 11.37 f | 850.33 ± 13.01 b | 1.81 ± 0.23 p | 4397.16 ± 314.65 jkl | 6386.66 ± 195.67 gh | 10225 ± 424.81 d | 13435.13 ± 353.28 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.08 ± 0.00 t | 235.33 ± 5.68 o | 392.66 ± 7.02 j | 584.33 ± 10.26 f | 901.66 ± 15.01 a | 2.05 ± 0.12 p | 5146.8 ± 176.66 ij | 7275.86 ± 149.42 f | 11491 ± 354.51 c | 15624 ± 325.91 a |
Root | Root | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 u | 194.51 ± 7.16 t | 487.66 ± 13.65 o | 763.33 ± 17.55 j | 1029.33 ± 24.00 f | 0.03 ± 0.03 p | 1419.61 ± 70.07 o | 3006.53 ± 77.40l m | 3203.66 ± 79.41 klm | 3257.8 ± 50.75 klm |
MR 30 | 0.03 ± 0.00 u | 242.66 ± 8.02 s | 531.33 ± 12.50 no | 790.34 ± 20.00 ij | 1139.33 ± 14.36 e | 0.06 ± 0.02 p | 1989.26 ± 55.33 no | 3576.96 ± 111.17 jkl | 3792.33 ± 141.66 ijkl | 3986.933 ± 81.83 ijk |
G.A 5 | 0.05 ± 0.01 u | 291.77 ± 7.12 r | 565.34 ± 14.50 mn | 834.67 ± 19.29 hi | 1240.34 ± 3.05 d | 0.51 ± 0.11 p | 2703.99 ± 109.99 mn | 4105.66 ± 39.75 hij | 4562.033 ± 128.88 fghi | 5085.1 ± 205.76 f |
G.A 10 | 0.06 ± 0.01 u | 342.33 ± 16.62 q | 610 ± 13.52l m | 877.33 ± 16.01 h | 1344.33 ± 21.36 c | 0.73 ± 0.14 p | 3376 ± 111.33 ljklm | 4839.06 ± 214.35 fgh | 5263.5 ± 95.00 ef | 6318.83 ± 304.45 d |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.07 ± 0.00 u | 385 ± 13.45 pq | 645.33 ± 18.17 l | 930.66 ± 18.00 g | 1439.67 ± 15.53 b | 0.93 ± 0.89 p | 4110.33 ± 337.3 ghij | 6043.23 ± 237.33 de | 6454 ± 230.78 d | 8205.9 ± 382.89 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.08 ± 0.00 u | 428.66 ± 16.92 p | 698.33 ± 8.32 k | 958.67 ± 21.22 g | 1535 ± 21.79 a | 1.14 ± 0.11 p | 4904 ± 362.67 fg | 7333.16 ± 382.17 c | 7575.83 ± 328.87 bc | 9984.16 ± 896.42 a |
Wastewater Conc. | Pb Concentration (µg g−1) | Pb Accumulation (µg Plant−1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | 0% | 25% | 50% | 75% | 100% | |
Treatments | Leaf | Leaf | ||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 t | 135.33 ± 10.40 s | 316.66 ± 28.43 no | 445.67 ± 12.05 jk | 656.33 ± 12.22 e | 0.03 ± 0.02 p | 1239.16 ± 73.18 o | 2308.83 ± 175.43 lmn | 2258.13 ± 83.02 lmn | 2034.36 ± 64.57 mno |
MR 30 | 0.01 ± 0.00 t | 169 ± 13.11 rs | 344 ± 17.69 mn | 466.33 ± 19.00 ij | 761.66 ± 17.56 d | 0.13 ± 0.10 p | 1771.83 ± 106.86 no | 2808.83 ± 124.15 jklm | 2936.7 ± 111.31 jkl | 3172.33 ± 82.97 jk |
G.A 5 | 0.04 ± 0.01 t | 186 ± 11.53 rs | 367.66 ± 19.00l mn | 501.67 ± 11.01 hi | 816 ± 26.51 c | 0.57 ± 0.13 p | 2199.16 ± 96.87 lmn | 3332.26 ± 138.43 ijk | 3644.26 ± 98.12 hij | 4242.03 ± 102.89 gh |
G.A 10 | 0.05 ± 0.02 t | 213 ± 21.07 qr | 390.33 ± 3.05 lm | 527.66 ± 22.30 gh | 954.66 ± 27.97 b | 0.84 ± 0.32 p | 2742.7 ± 194.95 klm | 4098.16 ± 187.91 ghi | 4290.26 ± 143.24 fgh | 5886.033 ± 180.33 cd |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.08 ± 0.01 t | 253 ± 7.55 pq | 409 ± 10.58 kl | 561.33 ± 16.50 fg | 992.33 ± 14.36 b | 1.34 ± 0.25 p | 3628.66 ± 243.28 hij | 4638 ± 328.95 efg | 5233.66 ± 202.36 cde | 7271.66 ± 464.80 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.00 t | 282.33 ± 16.16 op | 415.66 ± 16.16 jkl | 589.34 ± 15.17 f | 1048.34 ± 36.01 a | 1.58 ± 0.05 p | 4334 ± 391.84 fgh | 5128.33 ± 547.92 def | 6094.33 ± 476.07 c | 8748.33 ± 890 a |
Stem | Stem | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 v | 116.66 ± 15.27 u | 418.34 ± 20.21 p | 721.66 ± 17.03 k | 1000.67 ± 3.05 ef | 0.05 ± 0.03 r | 1710 ± 226.49 q | 5507.5 ± 272.70 mn | 8690.26 ± 601.52 ijk | 9873.6 ± 254.35 hi |
MR 30 | 0.03 ± 0.02 v | 151.67 ± 12.58 tu | 477.67 ± 13.01 o | 778 ± 14.52 jk | 1031 ± 7.93 de | 0.58 ± 0.47 r | 2523.33 ± 132.03 pq | 6766.83 ± 223.43 lm | 10373.67 ± 498.06 h | 12029.33 ± 631.14 g |
G.A 5 | 0.05 ± 0.01 v | 196.66 ± 15.27 st | 513.66 ± 7.67 no | 834.66 ± 18.50 ij | 1061 ± 10.14 cd | 0.98 ± 0.20 r | 3566.66 ± 189.03 op | 7653 ± 82.86 jkl | 12690.6 ± 552.34 fg | 14007.33 ± 830.28 ef |
G.A 10 | 0.06 ± 0.01 v | 246.66 ± 12.58 rs | 564.33 ± 14.01 mn | 884.66 ± 7.63 hi | 1110 ± 15 bc | 1.24 ± 0.21 r | 4727.5 ± 241.41 no | 9142.33 ± 303.61 hij | 14628.93 ± 567.05 de | 15905 ± 462.41 cd |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.07 ± 0.00 v | 257.33 ± 44.23 r | 578.33 ± 60.92 m | 908.66 ± 8.08 gh | 1160 ± 10 ab | 1.74 ± 0.17 r | 5272.83 ± 891.51 mn | 10125.67 ± 1181.01 hi | 16661.33 ± 649.43 c | 18326 ± 278.47 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.00 v | 333.33 ± 13.50 q | 653 ± 13 l | 950 ± 13.51 fg | 1199.33 ± 12.09 a | 2.20 ± 0.08 r | 7288.93 ± 308.44 kl | 12106.6 ± 568.01 g | 18679 ± 363.23 b | 20787 ± 655.94 a |
Root | Root | |||||||||
MR 0, G.A 0 | 0.00 ± 0.00 v | 141.66 ± 15.27 u | 443.33 ± 20.21 p | 763 ± 15 j | 1040 ± 8 e | 0.03 ± 0.01 q | 1037.16 ± 152.62 p | 2735 ± 169.55 lmn | 3206.6 ± 215.60 klm | 3293.33 ± 112.62 jklm |
MR 30 | 0.04 ± 0.03 v | 176.67 ± 12.58 u | 503 ± 13 o | 818 ± 14.52 i | 1071 ± 7.93 de | 0.23 ± 0.29 q | 1450.33 ± 138.63 op | 3388.6 ± 189.70 jkl | 3928.33 ± 233.11 hij | 3748.1 ± 88.22 ijk |
G.A 5 | 0.06 ± 0.01 v | 221.66 ± 15.27 t | 542.33 ± 12.50 n | 874.67 ± 18.50 h | 1101 ± 10.14 d | 0.44 ± 0.05 q | 2056.66 ± 196.21 no | 3943.03 ± 226.55 hij | 4783.36 ± 233.36 ef | 4515.2 ± 229.27 fgh |
G.A 10 | 0.06 ± 0.01 v | 271.67 ± 12.58 s | 588 ± 9.16 m | 924.33 ± 8.08 g | 1150.33 ± 15.01 c | 0.69 ± 0.12 q | 2681.66 ± 164.17 mn | 4666.46 ± 254.30 fg | 5546.53 ± 140.69 d | 5408.56 ± 300.50 de |
MR 30 + G.A 5 | 0.08 ± 0.00 v | 315.66 ± 16.01 r | 636.33 ± 15.04 l | 948.67 ± 8.08 g | 1200 ± 10 b | 1.06 ± 0.04 q | 3367.33 ± 257.68 jklm | 5963.8 ± 363.22 cd | 6577.33 ± 116.02 bc | 6839.66 ± 312.09 b |
MR 30 + G.A 10 | 0.09 ± 0.00 v | 358.34 ± 13.50 q | 678.33 ± 13.50 k | 990 ± 13.52 f | 1238 ± 13.31 a | 1.27 ± 0.11 q | 4092.46 ± 47.30 ghi | 7118 ± 197.50 b | 7820.9 ± 196.96 a | 8047.833 ± 595.41 a |
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Farid, M.; Abubakar, M.; Asam, Z.U.Z.; Sarfraz, W.; Abbas, M.; Shakoor, M.B.; Ali, S.; Ahmad, S.R.; Jilani, A.; Iqbal, J.; et al. Microwave Irradiation and Glutamic Acid-Assisted Phytotreatment of Textile and Surgical Industrial Wastewater by Sorghum. Molecules 2022, 27, 4004. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134004
Farid M, Abubakar M, Asam ZUZ, Sarfraz W, Abbas M, Shakoor MB, Ali S, Ahmad SR, Jilani A, Iqbal J, et al. Microwave Irradiation and Glutamic Acid-Assisted Phytotreatment of Textile and Surgical Industrial Wastewater by Sorghum. Molecules. 2022; 27(13):4004. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134004
Chicago/Turabian StyleFarid, Mujahid, Muhammad Abubakar, Zaki Ul Zaman Asam, Wajiha Sarfraz, Mohsin Abbas, Muhammad Bilal Shakoor, Shafaqat Ali, Sajid Rashid Ahmad, Asim Jilani, Javed Iqbal, and et al. 2022. "Microwave Irradiation and Glutamic Acid-Assisted Phytotreatment of Textile and Surgical Industrial Wastewater by Sorghum" Molecules 27, no. 13: 4004. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134004