Biodiesel Production Using Wild Apricot (Prunus aitchisonii) Seed Oil via Heterogeneous Catalysts
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Equipment and Chemicals Used in Seed Oil Extraction
2.2. Extraction of Oil
2.2.1. Chemical Extraction of Oil
2.2.2. Mechanical Extraction of Oils
2.3. Calculation of Free-Fatty Acid (FFA) Contents of Prunus aitchisonii Seeds Oil
2.4. Production of Heterogeneous Nano-Catalysts (HNC)
2.4.1. Calcined Prunus aitchisonii Cake (CPC)
2.4.2. KOH-Activated P. aitchisonii Cake (KPC)
2.4.3. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles through Precipitation Methods
2.5. Illustration of Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts (KPC, KPC, and TiO2)
2.5.1. XRD (X-ray Diffraction)
2.5.2. Scanning Electron Microscopic Technique (SEM)
2.5.3. (EDS or EDX) Energy-Dispersive X-ray Composition Analysis
2.6. Biofuel/Diesel Production through Reflux (Trans-) Esterification Reaction
2.7. Characterization of Manufactured Fatty Acids-Methyl Esters
2.7.1. Gas Chromatography-MS Analysis
2.7.2. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) or Nuclear–Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
2.7.3. FT-IR
2.7.4. Methyl Esters Physical-Fuel Properties
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Biofuel Production of Seeds of Prunus aitchisonii
3.2. Representation of Heterogeneous Nano-Catalysts, CPC, KPC as Well as TiO2
3.2.1. CPC and KPC X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.2.2. TiO2 Catalyst’s X-ray Diffraction
3.2.3. SEM Findings of Nano-Catalysts
SEM of CPC and KPC
SEM of TiO2
3.2.4. Representation of (EDX) Analysis of CPC Heterogenous Nano-Catalyst
3.2.5. KPC Heterogenous Nano-Catalyst EDX
3.2.6. TiO2 Nano-Catalyst Energy Dispersive X-ray EDX Analysis
3.3. Characterizations of Synthesized FAMEs (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters)
Comparative (GC-MS) Investigation of P. aitchisonii Biodiesel
3.4. FT-IR of P. aitchisonii Seed Oil Biodiesel (PAOB)
Comparative Analysis of FT-IR of P. aitchisonii FAMEs
3.5. Comparative NMR Analysis of Prunus aitchisonii FAMEs
3.5.1. H NMR Assessment of P. aitchisonii Biodiesel Deal with TiO2
3.5.2. C-NMR Examination of P. aitchisonii FAME Deals with (TiO2)
3.5.3. “1. H NMR” Analysis of P. aitchisonii FAMEs Resulted from CPC
3.5.4. C NMR Analysis of P. aitchisonii FAMEs Treated with CPC
3.5.5. H NMR Analysis of P. aitchisonii FAMEs Treated with KPC
3.5.6. C NMR Analysis of Prunus aitchisonii Biodiesel Treated with KPC
3.6. Biodiesel Optimization
- Oil and methanol proportion;
- Amount of catalysts;
- The temperature of the chemical reaction;
- The time period of reaction.
3.6.1. Oil and Methanol Proportion
3.6.2. Amount of Catalysts
3.6.3. Temperature of Reaction
3.6.4. Time Period of Reaction
3.7. Physical Properties of P. aitchisonii Oil Biodiesel (PAOB)
3.7.1. Flash-Point
3.7.2. Density
3.7.3. Kinematic Viscosity
3.7.4. Pour Point and Cloud Point
3.7.5. Sulphur Weight %
3.7.6. Acid-Value
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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S. No | Name of Catalyst | Amount of Catalysts (gm) | Oil to Methanol Ratios | Time Period (h) | Temperature (°C) | Conversion %Age |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | CPC | 0.25 | 1:5 | 2 | 70 | 92.58 |
2 | KPC | 0.25 | 1:5 | 2 | 70 | 94.5 |
3 | TiO2 | 0.20 | 1:4 | 2 | 75 | 96.5 |
S. No | Element | Weight % | Atomic ta% |
---|---|---|---|
1 | C K | 60.45 | 67.91 |
2 | N K | 13.22 | 12.74 |
3 | O K | 20.06 | 16.92 |
4 | Mg K | 0.62 | 0.35 |
5 | P K | 1.43 | 0.62 |
6 | S K | 0.30 | 0.13 |
7 | K K | 2.35 | 0.81 |
8 | Ca K | 1.57 | 0.53 |
9 | Total | 100.00 | 100.00 |
S. No | Element | Weight % | Atomic % |
---|---|---|---|
1 | C K | 26.05 | 39.15 |
2 | N K | 4.54 | 5.85 |
3 | O K | 34.38 | 38.79 |
4 | P K | 0.38 | 0.22 |
5 | K K | 34.65 | 16.00 |
6 | Total | 100.00 | 100.00 |
S. No | Element | Weight % | Atomic % |
---|---|---|---|
1 | O K | 41.57 | 67.61 |
2 | Ti K | 58.43 | 32.39 |
3 | Total | 100.00 | 100.00 |
Heterogenous Nano-Catalysts | Peak # | Possible Compounds | Retention Time (min) | Formula | Molecular Weight g/mole | Base Peak | Percentage % | Total Percentage of Methyl Ester |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TiO2 | 2 | Dodecanoic acid methyl ester | 18.658 | C13H26O2 | 214 | 74 | 0.78 | 74.5% |
3 | 9-Hexadecenoic acid methyl ester | 24.291 | C17H32O2 | 268 | 55 | 1.33 | ||
4 | (Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester | 24.579 | C17H34O2 | 270 | 74 | 11.42 | ||
6 | 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester | 26.783 | C19H34O2 | 294 | 67 | 20.70 | ||
7 | 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester | 26.928 | C19H36O2 | 296 | 55 | 35.56 | ||
8 | Octadecenoic acid methyl ester | 27.139 | C19H38O2 | 298 | 74 | 4.36 | ||
10 | 9-Octadecenoic acid, 1,2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester | 31.094 | C21H40O4 | 356 | 129 | 1.40 | ||
KPC | 2 | Hexadecanoic acid methyl ester | 24.570 | C17H34O2 | 270 | 74 | 1.17 | 58% |
4 | 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester | 26.741 | C19H34O2 | 294 | 67 | 4.32 | ||
5 | 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl ester | 26.826 | C19H36O2 | 296 | 55 | 15.05 | ||
6 | 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid ethyl ester- | 27.515 | C20H34O2 | 306 | 67 | 31.68 | ||
8 | 9-Octadecenoic acid 1,2,3 propanetriyl ester | 30.587 | C57H104O6 | 884 | 55 | 0.97 | ||
10 | 9-Octadecenoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester | 31.102 | C21H40O4 | 356 | 129 | 2.86 | ||
CPC | 3 | Carbonochloridic acid ethyl ester | 1.884 | C3H5ClO | 108 | 45 | 43.78 | 50% |
5 | 9-12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl esters | 23.867 | C19H34O2 | 294 | 73 | 1.72 | ||
6 | 9-Octadecenoic acid methyl esters | 23.949 | C19H36O2 | 296 | 67 | 3.78 |
S. No | Fuel Properties | Testing Methods | ASTM Standards | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Color | ASTM D-1500 | 2 | Visual |
2 | Flashpoint (°C) | ASTM D-93 | 60–100 | 71.5 |
3 | Density @ 15 °C | ASTM D-1298 | 0.86–0.90 | 0.836 |
4 | Kinematic viscosity @ 40 °C | ASTM D-445 | 1.9–6.0 | 4.33 |
5 | Pour point °C | ASTM D-97 | −15 to 16 | −7 |
6 | Cloud point °C | ASTM D-2500 | −3 to 12 | −8 |
7 | Sulfur % wt | ASTM D-4294 | 0.05 | 0.00015 |
8 | Total acid number mg KOH/gm | ASTM D-974 | 0.5 | 0.114 |
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Nisa, B.; Ullah, F.; Nisa, I.; Ahmad, M.; Zafar, M.; Munir, M.; Sultana, S.; Zaman, W.; Manghwar, H.; Ullah, F.; et al. Biodiesel Production Using Wild Apricot (Prunus aitchisonii) Seed Oil via Heterogeneous Catalysts. Molecules 2022, 27, 4752. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27154752
Nisa B, Ullah F, Nisa I, Ahmad M, Zafar M, Munir M, Sultana S, Zaman W, Manghwar H, Ullah F, et al. Biodiesel Production Using Wild Apricot (Prunus aitchisonii) Seed Oil via Heterogeneous Catalysts. Molecules. 2022; 27(15):4752. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27154752
Chicago/Turabian StyleNisa, Batool, Fazal Ullah, Iqbal Nisa, Mushtaq Ahmad, Muhammad Zafar, Mamoona Munir, Shazia Sultana, Wajid Zaman, Hakim Manghwar, Farman Ullah, and et al. 2022. "Biodiesel Production Using Wild Apricot (Prunus aitchisonii) Seed Oil via Heterogeneous Catalysts" Molecules 27, no. 15: 4752. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27154752