Sophorolipids—Bio-Based Antimicrobial Formulating Agents for Applications in Food and Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of Sophorolipids
2.1. Origin and Structure of Sophorolipids
2.1.1. Acidic Compounds
2.1.2. Lactonic Compounds
2.2. Sophorolipids Biosynthesis
2.2.1. Biochemical Pathways
2.2.2. Regulatory Mechanisms
2.3. Natural Roles
3. Methodology
3.1. Literature Search
3.2. Search Terms and Databases
3.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
3.4. Study Selection
3.5. Data Extraction
4. Applications of Sophorolipids in Food and Health
4.1. Food
4.1.1. Food Preservation
4.1.2. Agricultural
4.1.3. Bioconversion from Food Waste
4.2. Health
4.2.1. Cosmetic Formulations
4.2.2. Wound Healing
4.2.3. Antimicrobial: Antifungal, Antibacterial, Biofilm Destruction
4.2.4. Anticancer
5. Future Perspectives
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
References
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Applications | Source of Sophorolipids | Structure | Bioactivity | Concentration (Types of Microbes) | Mechanism(s) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Food preservation | Starmerella bombicola | Lactonic | Antimicrobial | 1% (E. coli O157:H7) | Protection against foodborne pathogenic bacteria | [65] |
Antibacterial; Emulsifier; Preservative | MIC 1 32 µg/mL (S. aureus) | Protection against foodborne pathogens; serve as an additive with nisin | [69] | |||
Antifungal | MIC/MFC 2 729.0 µg/mL (Fusarium oxysporum) | Protection against foodborne pathogens/food spoilage fungi | [58] | |||
Antibacterial | MIC 0.0015% (Clostridium perfringens), 0.5% (Campylobacter jejuni) | Protection against food pathogens in poultry industry | [74] | |||
MIC 31.25 µg/mL (S. aureus) 62.5 µg/mL (L.monocytogenes) | Protection against food pathogens in poultry industry | [75] | ||||
Emulsifier | 0.1 wt% | Improve the stability of oil-in-water emulsions | [73] | |||
Acidic and lactonic | Emulsifier; reduce interfacial tension | 1 wt% | Improve the stability of lemon oil-in-water emulsions | [71] | ||
Lactonic Sophorolipid | Emulsifying properties | 0.5 wt% | Stabilize oregano oil-in-water emulsions | [72] | ||
Candida albicans and Candida glabrata | Sophorolipid | Emulsifier, Antibacterial | 60 µg/mL (B. subtilis) | Protection against bacterial pathogens, possible use as food emulsions | [70] | |
Rhodotorula rubra | Acidic | Antibacterial | 200 µg/mL (E. coli and S. aureus) | Protection against foodborne pathogens | [68] | |
Rhodotorula babjevae YS3 | Acidic; lactonic | Antifungal | MIC 125 µg/mL (Fusarium oxysporum) | Protection against pathogenic fungi | [60] | |
Metschnikowia churdharensis | Acidic; lactonic | Antifungal | MIC 49 µg/mL (F. oxysporum) 98 µg/mL (F. solani) | Protection against food spoilage fungal pathogens | [59] | |
Agricultural | Starmerella bombicola | Lactonic | Antimicrobial | MIC 2 mg/mL (Pythium ultimum) | Protection against phytopathogens/conventional pesticides for tomato plants and fruits | [76] |
Antifungal | 1 mg/mL (Moesziomyces sp.) | Protection against plant pathogen | [77] | |||
Wickerhamiella domercqiae | Lactonic | Antimicrobial | 10 mg/mL (F.oxysporum, P. ultimum) | Inhibition of spore germination and mycelial growth of pathogens | [78] | |
Candida kuoi | Acidic | Emulsifying properties; herbicidal activity | 1% v/v (Senna obtusifolia) | Phytotoxicity against sicklepod; Used as postemergence herbicides | [79] | |
Bioconversion from food waste | Starmerella bombicola | Acidic and lactonic | Emulsifier | 51.5 g/L (submerged fermentation) | Sunflower oil refinery waste as feedstock | [5] |
Surface-active property; Antibacterial | 15.25 g/L (resting cell method) CMC 3: 9.5 mg/L MIC90 4: 300 μg/mL (S. aureus) | Non-edible Jatropha oil as feedstock; Replace synthetic surfactants in detergent | [81] | |||
Lactonic | N/A | 3.7 g/L (fed-batch fermentation) | Waste stream and food waste as feedstock | [83] | ||
N/A | 115.2 g/L (batch fermentation) | Bioconversion of food waste by enzymatic hydrolysis | [85] | |||
C18:1 DLSL | Emulsifying properties | 1 g/L (solid-state fermentation) CMC: 40.1 mg/L | Winterization oil cake as feedstock, used in diesel displacement | [84] | ||
Candida floricola | Acidic | N/A | 3.5 g/L (fermentation process using glycerol) | Waste glycerol as fermentation feedstock | [82] |
Applications | Source of Sophorolipids | Structure | Bioactivity | Concentration (types of Microbes) | Mechanism(s) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cosmetic and wound healing | Starmerella bombicola | Acidic (from C. kuoi); Lactonic (from S. bombicola) | Emulsifier | 50 μg/mL | Cosmetic creams and lotions, pharmaceutical ointments | [89] |
Acidic and lactonic | Antimicrobial | 0.24% w/w (Propionibacterium acnes) | Anti-acne agent | [90] | ||
Acidic | Enhance transdermal absorption of lactoferrin | 0.01% | Dermal fibroblast proliferation (cosmetic use) | [93] | ||
Sophorolipid (with lignans) | Transdermal permeation | 10 μg/mL | Design biodegradable transferosomal hydrogel (cosmetic use) | [94] | ||
Acidic | Reduce surface tension | CAC 2 0.083% | Skin penetration enhancer | [95] | ||
Acidic (C18”1-NASL) 3 | Antimicrobial | MIC 4 mg/mL (Enterococcus faecalis, P. aeruginosa) | Applied with adjuvant antibiotics (kanamycin or cefotaxime) in wound healing | [28] | ||
Sophorolipid-Sericin Gel | Antibacterial | 500 μg/mL (76.1% antioxidant activity) | Wound healing in wistar rats | [86] | ||
Rhodotorula bogoriensis | C22-SL 1 | Antimicrobial | 100 mg/mL (Propionibacterium acnes) | Inhibit growth of P. acne (skin acne) | [91] | |
Pseudohyphozyma bogoriensis | 6′-Ac-22:0-SL (22 carbon chains) (acidic) | Antibacterial | CMC 10 μg/mL (Cutibacterium acne) | Inhibit growth of C. acne (skin acne) | [92] | |
N/A | Diacetylated lactonic sophorolipid | Immunomodulatory properties | 25 μg/mL (suppressed M1 macrophages polarization) | Used as coatings to promote the resolution of inflammation and normal wound healing | [98] | |
N/A | Sophorolipid | Antimicrobial | 10 μg/mL (E. coli, Streptococcus spp. and Salmonella spp.) | Accelerate proliferation and migration in vitro wound model using HT-29 cells, accelerate intestinal wound healing | [97] | |
Antimicrobial | Starmerella bombicola | Acidic and lactonic | Antibacterial Antibiofilm | MIC >5% v/v (Cupriavidus Necator, Bacillus subtilis) | Induce cell death in planktonic cells | [57] |
MIC 2 mg/mL (B. subtilis) 1 mg/mL (S. aureus) 4 mg/mL (E. coli, P. aeruginosa) | Inhibit both GPB 4 and GNB 5 | [104] | ||||
MIC 150 μg/mL (S. aureus) 350 μg/mL (P. aeruginosa) | [105] | |||||
MIC90 300 μg/mL (S. aureus) | Inhibit GPB | [81] | ||||
200 μg/mL (B. subtilis) | [75] | |||||
Nonacetylated acidic | Antibacterial | 5 μg/mL (Listeria ivanovii) | Inhibit GPB | [99] | ||
Lactonic | Antibacterial | MIC 400 μg/mL (S. aureus, E. coli,) | Inhibit both GPB and GNB in synergy with antibiotics | [120] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antimicrobial Antifungal | MIC 6 μg/mL (S.aureus) 30 μg/mL (E. coli) 50 μg/mL (C. albicans) | Inhibit bacterial and fungal infections | [116] | ||
Lactonic | Antifungal | MIC80 6 60 μg/mL (C. albicans) BIC80 7 120 μg/mL (C. albicans) | Inhibit biofilm formation and hyphal growth of Candida species | [112] | ||
Acidic | Antifungal Antibiofilm | MIC70 8 24h: 1.56 μg/mL 48h: 0.78 μg/mL (C. albicans) | Inhibit candidiasis infections | [113] | ||
N/A | Antifungal Antibiofilm | MIC 200 μg/mL (C. albicans) | Inhibit fungal infection | [7] | ||
Lactonic | Antimicrobial | MIC 97.5 mg/mL MBC 9 195 mg/mL (Streptococcus Oralis) | Inhibit oral pathogens | [117] | ||
Lactonic | Antimicrobial | MIC 1 mg/mL (L. fermentum) 1.3 mg/mL (L. acidophilus) | Inhibit oral cariogenic bacteria | [118] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antimicrobial | MIC 19.5 μg/mL (Mixed culture of GPB and GNB) | Inhibit bacteria isolated from salted hides (Leather industry) | [119] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antimicrobial | MIC/MBC 2.09 μmol (S.aureus) 147 μmol (E. coli) | Inhibit both GPB and GNB | [123] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antimicrobial Antibiofilm | MIC75 10 0.8% w/v (S. aureus) | Inhibit biofilm formation of bacteria; applied for silicon catheter medical devices | [108] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antibiofilm | MIC 50 μg/mL (S. aureus) | Inhibit biofilm formation of bacteria; Applied for silicon catheter medical devices | [109] | ||
Acidic; lactonic (AS/LS ratio is 3.8:6.2) | Antibiofilm | CMC 0.1 wt% (Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1) | Inhibit biofilm formation of bacteria in microfluidic channels | [110] | ||
Acidic and lactonic | Antibiofilm | 50 μg/mL (P. aeruginosa) 43.7% biofilm activity | Inhibit biofilm formation of bacteria; Applied in quorum quenching and imaging | [111] | ||
- | Cryptococcus sp. | Acidic | Antimicrobial; Stabilizers for NPs production | 5 mg/mL (S. enterica and C. albicans) | Inhibit growth of microbial cells, production of functionalized oxide nanoparticles (NPs) | [122] |
Candida tropicalis RA1 | Lactonic | Antibacterial | MIC 250 μg/mL (S. aureus) | Inhibit GPB | [103] | |
Rhodotorula babjevae | Lactonic | Antifungal | MIC 1 mg/mL (Trichophyton mentagrophytes) | Inhibit dermatophytosis | [115] | |
N/A | Sophorolipid | Antifungal | 0.1% (Trichophyton mentagrophytes) | Prevent tinea pedis | [114] | |
N/A | Sophorolipid | Antiadhesion | MIC 100 μg/mL (S.aureus, E. coli) | Inhibit bacterial biofilm and adhesion to abiotic surfaces | [107] | |
Anticancer | Starmerella bombicola | C18:1 DLSL 11 | Anticancer | IC50 30 μg/mL (MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells) | Inhibit breast cancer cells growth | [17] |
Anticancer | IC50 12.23 μg/mL (HeLa cells) 25.45 μg/mL (CaSki cells) | Inhibit human cervical cancer cells growth | [125] | |||
Anticancer | IC50 12 70 μg/mL (HT-29 cells) | Inhibit colorectal cancer cells growth | [126] | |||
Lactonic | Anticancer | IC50 14.14 μg/mL (HeLa cells) | Inhibit human cervical cancer cells growth | [127] | ||
Anticancer | IC50 60 μg/mL (CT26 cells) | Inhibit colon cancer cells growth | [128] | |||
Acidic; lactonic (in excess) | Antiangiogenic | IC50 63.89 µg/mL (EA.hy926 cells) | Inhibit angiogenesis of human cell lines (downregulating VEGF 13) | [130] | ||
Wickerhamiella domercqiae | C18:1 DLSL | Anticancer | IC50 30 μg/mL (KYSE109 and KYSE450 cells) | Inhibit human esophageal cancer cells growth | [124] | |
N/A | Lactonic | Anticancer | IC50 25 μg/mL (HepG2 cells) | Induce apoptosis in liver hepatocellular carcinoma cells | [129] |
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Cho, W.Y.; Ng, J.F.; Yap, W.H.; Goh, B.H. Sophorolipids—Bio-Based Antimicrobial Formulating Agents for Applications in Food and Health. Molecules 2022, 27, 5556. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175556
Cho WY, Ng JF, Yap WH, Goh BH. Sophorolipids—Bio-Based Antimicrobial Formulating Agents for Applications in Food and Health. Molecules. 2022; 27(17):5556. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175556
Chicago/Turabian StyleCho, Wei Yan, Jeck Fei Ng, Wei Hsum Yap, and Bey Hing Goh. 2022. "Sophorolipids—Bio-Based Antimicrobial Formulating Agents for Applications in Food and Health" Molecules 27, no. 17: 5556. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175556