Next Article in Journal
Fabrication and Biological Activities of All-in-One Composite Nanoemulsion Based on Blumea balsamifera Oil-Tea Tree Oil
Next Article in Special Issue
Superior Valorisation of Juglans regia L. Leaves of Different Maturity through the Isolation of Bioactive Compounds
Previous Article in Journal
Unraveling the Role of Natural Sediments in sII Mixed Gas Hydrate Formation: An Experimental Study
Previous Article in Special Issue
Determination of Active Ingredients, Mineral Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Hydroalcoholic Macerates of Vinca minor L. Plant from the Dobrogea Area
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 28
Issue 15
10.3390/molecules28155888
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Peculiarities of the Variation of Biologically Active Compounds in Fruit of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Growing in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve

by
Rima Šedbarė
1,*,
Onutė Grigaitė
2 and
Valdimaras Janulis
1
1
Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, 50162 Kaunas, Lithuania
2
Dzūkija National Park and Čepkeliai State Nature Reserve Directorate, 65334 Merkinė, Lithuania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2023, 28(15), 5888; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155888
Submission received: 14 July 2023 / Revised: 31 July 2023 / Accepted: 3 August 2023 / Published: 5 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction and Analysis of New Bioactive Compounds Derived from Natural Products)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study was carried out to analyze the accumulation patterns of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, chlorogenic acid, and triterpene compounds in fruit samples of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. berries growing in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve in Lithuania. Studies were carried out on the phytochemical composition of cranberry fruit samples during the period of 2020–2022. Anthocyanins, flavonols, chlorogenic acid and triterpene compounds were identified and quantified using UPLC-DAD methods, and proanthocyanins were determined using spectrophotometric methods. The content of identified compounds varied, as reflected in the total amounts of anthocyanins (710.3 ± 40 µg/g to 6993.8 ± 119 µg/g), proanthocyanidins (378.4 ± 10 µg EE/g to 3557. 3 ± 75 µg EE/g), flavonols (479.6 ± 9 µg/g to 7291.2 ± 226 µg/g), chlorogenic acid (68.0 ± 1 µg/g to 3858.2 ± 119 µg/g), and triterpenoids (3780.8 ± 98 µg/g to 7226.9 ± 224 µg/g). Cranberry fruit samples harvested from open oligotrophic wetland habitats contained higher levels of anthocyanins, anthocyanidins, flavonol glycosides, and proanthocyanidins. The highest levels of triterpene compounds were found in the cranberry fruits harvested in the spring of the following year after the snowmelt. The use of principal component analysis showed that cranberry plant material harvested in October and November had higher levels of bioactive compounds.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The number of wetlands is declining worldwide, and their ecosystems are fragile: more than 50% of specific types of wetlands in parts of North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand were destroyed during the twentieth century [1]. Destroyed wetlands and drained peatlands release gases that increase the greenhouse effect in the Earth’s atmosphere. Thus, preserving and restoring wetlands is important in efforts to reverse climate change and address atmospheric stability issues [2]. In order to preserve sensitive wetland ecosystems in Lithuania, the Čepkeliai, Kamanai, and Viešvilė State Strict Nature Reserves and the Žuvintas State Biosphere Reserve have been established [3]. The Čepkeliai wetland is one of the largest and most unique natural raised bogs (5858 hectares of raised bogs) in the Baltic region, containing rare and endangered plant species and populations of protected animals [4,5]. The research carried out in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve is important for assessing the changes in wetlands in a warming climate, for assessing their status, and for developing strategies to conserve wetland ecosystems and restore damaged or destroyed wetlands in Lithuania [3,6].
In the reserves and strict reserves located in the territory of Lithuania, human visitation and economic activities are strictly limited. Phytochemical studies into cranberry fruit are important as they determine the optimum time for harvesting cranberries and provide research-based recommendations for their rational harvesting. The results of research and the implementation of recommendations based on research data would allow the Lithuanian Reserve Authorities to set time limits for the issuing of permits for the harvesting of cranberries by the population in protected areas, justify the procedure for issuing permits and optimize the use of natural resources for the population. The ripening of cranberries results in the accumulation of the highest levels of biologically active compounds, and thus studies on the qualitative and quantitative composition of the cranberry fruit are important for assessing the quality of raw plant material.
The results of studies on the phytochemical composition of Vaccinium oxycoccos fruits are rather fragmentary [7]. The composition of bog cranberry fruits was investigated using the spectrophotometric method [8,9] and liquid chromatography methodology with diode array detectors and mass spectrometry detectors [10,11,12]. Fresh cranberry fruit samples were found to contain anthocyanins (12.4–207.3 mg/100 g), proanthocyanidins (1.5–5.3 mg/100 g), flavonols (36.3 mg/100 g), phenolic acids (96.3 mg/100 g), vitamin C (31 mg/100 g), and triterpene compounds (12.9 mg/100 g) [7,10]. The variety of bioactive compounds and their biological effects makes cranberries a promising medicinal plant material.
The cultivation of cranberries and the rational use of natural cenopopulations for their harvesting and storage are promising for the development of agro-friendly farming [13,14]. Chemical composition studies are important and provide knowledge on the use of Vaccinium oxycoccos fruits as alternatives to Vaccinium macrocarpon fruits due to their similar flavor characteristics and a similar composition of bioactive compounds [7,9]. A detailed investigation into the bioactive compound content of cranberry fruits can help to protect cranberry habitats, provide a rationale for the use of cranberry resources, and guarantee the preparation of quality cranberry raw material.
The aim of the investigation was to perform a phytochemical composition analysis on the fruits of Vaccinium oxycoccos growing in the habitats of the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve. In order to determine the variation in the qualitative and quantitative composition of triterpene, chlorogenic acid, flavonols, proanthocyanidins, and anthocyanins compounds during ripening, studies were carried out in the period from 2020 to 2022 on Vaccinium oxycoccos cenopopulations. The obtained data are relevant for determining the optimal time of cranberry harvesting, providing recommendations for the rational harvesting of cranberry fruits, and clarifying the influence of different wetland habitats on the phytochemical composition of cranberry fruits.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Analysis of the Qualitative and Quantitative Composition of Anthocyanins

Fresh and processed cranberry fruits are used in food supplements, juice production, and in the food industry. Thus, anthocyanin studies on fruit samples of bog cranberries growing in Lithuania are relevant for assessing the quality and health benefits of cranberry fruit raw material.
The qualitative and quantitative composition of anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in bog cranberry fruit samples harvested during different growing seasons are presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2. While the qualitative profile of anthocyanins in the phytochemical composition of bog cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) fruit growing under Lithuanian climatic conditions was identical, the quantitative profile of anthocyanins in the cranberry fruit samples harvested from different types of habitat varied. Four anthocyanins were predominant in the cranberry fruit samples harvested from mesotrophic wetland (site B) and oligotrophic wetland (sites C and E) habitats: cyanidin-3-O-galactoside (20.1% ± 7.2%), cyanidin-3-O-arabinoside (19.0% ± 4.19%), peonidin-3-O-galactoside (30.4% ± 6.12%), and peonidin-3-O-arabinoside (18.4% ± 5.3%) (Figure 1). Meanwhile, six anthocyanins were prevalent in the fruit samples harvested from the mesotrophic wetland (site A) and the oligotrophic wetland (site D) habitats: cyanidin-3-O-galactoside (16.2% ± 5.1%), cyanidin-3-O-arabinoside (17.0% ± 3.7%), peonidin-3-O-galactoside (26.4% ± 7.5%), peonidin-3-O-arabinoside (17.4% ± 5.4%), cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (3.9% ± 3.1%), and peonidin-3-O-glucoside (14.4% ± 8.2%) (Figure 1). The analysis of the qualitative and quantitative composition of anthocyanins in bog cranberries growing in the territories of the Žuvintas and Kamanai State Strict Nature Reserves in Lithuania showed that the percentage of anthocyanins in cranberry fruit samples varied depending on the location of the plant. Four anthocyanins were predominant in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats (cyanidin-3-O-galactoside, cyanidin-3-O-arabinoside, peonidin-3-O-galactoside, and peonidin-3-O-arabinoside), while six anthocyanins predominated in others (cyanidin-3-O-galactoside, cyanidin-3-O-arabinoside, peonidin-3-O-galactoside, peonidin-3-O-arabinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, and peonidin-3-O-glucoside) [15].
Research has shown that cranberry genotype influences the quantitative composition of anthocyanins in cranberry fruit samples [16]. Areškevičiūtė et al. investigated the genetic properties of morphologically distinct bog cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos) using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis and found a high level of genetic variability in the bog cranberry population [17]. Vosra et al. found that cranberry ploidy 2× and 4× affected the composition of anthocyanins glucosides, galactosides, and arabinosides in cranberry fruit [16]. Česonienė et al. reported that the anthocyanin composition profile of tetraploid-type V. oxycoccos fruit samples was similar to that of V. macrocarpon fruit samples [18]. Higher levels of cyanidin and peonidin glucosides were detected in the fruit samples of diploid-type cranberries [18]. In our study, the percentage of anthocyanins in the cranberry fruit samples harvested from different habitats varied between their ripening and the 3-year study period. The variation in anthocyanin percentage could be explained by the fact that different cranberry genotypes may grow in different habitats and that their variation from one habitat to another determines the qualitative and quantitative anthocyanin composition of the raw plant material.
We carried out a comparative analysis of the total anthocyanin content in V. oxycoccos fruit samples harvested during the 2020–2022 growing season (Figure 2). We found that the total anthocyanin content varied among the fruit samples harvested: 710.3 ± 40 µg/g to 6054.5 ± 200 µg/g in the 2020 growing season, 779.0 ± 12 µg/g to 6993.8 ± 119 µg/g in 2021, and 974.8 ± 23 µg/g to 6840.9 ± 185 µg/g in 2022 (Figure 2). The anthocyanin content of cranberry fruit samples harvested in 2021 in the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves varied over a wider range, from 698 ± 24 µg/g to 8352 ± 200 µg/g [15].
An increasing trend in the quantitative composition of anthocyanins was observed in cranberry fruit samples harvested during berry ripening from September to October in different years (2020–2022) in the habitats of the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve (Figure 2). We found that the anthocyanin content of the cranberry samples harvested in the second half of October and in November varied unevenly depending on the year and the type of the habitat (Figure 2). In cranberry fruit samples harvested after winter, the anthocyanin content showed a statistically discernible decrease (Figure 2).
The study of the anthocyanins levels in the cranberry fruits harvested in 2020 found the maximum observed total anthocyanin content (6054.5 ± 200 µg/g) in the cranberry fruits harvested on October 16 from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D). The anthocyanin levels of the fruits harvested from this site were not statistically discernible from the anthocyanin content levels of the cranberry fruit samples harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitats (sites C and E) on November 19. The lowest levels of total anthocyanin (710.3 ± 40 µg/g) were found in the cranberry fruits harvested from the mesotrophic wetland habitat (site B) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (on 21 April 2021).
In cranberry fruit samples harvested during the growing season of 2021, the highest total anthocyanin content (6993.8 ± 119 µg/g) was detected in samples harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D) on September 28. The content of anthocyanins in the fruits harvested from this habitat was not discernibly statistically different from the anthocyanin content in the cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) or the mesotrophic habitat (site B) on September 28. The lowest levels of total anthocyanins (779.0 ± 12 µg/g) were found in the cranberry fruits harvested from the mesotrophic habitat (site A) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (on 23 March 2022).
The analysis of the quantitative composition of anthocyanins in cranberry fruits harvested in 2022 showed that cranberry fruits harvested on November 9 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) had the highest total anthocyanin content (6840.9 ± 185 µg/g). The levels of anthocyanin in these fruits were not discernibly statistically different from the anthocyanin content of the cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (sites E and D) on November 9. The lowest levels of total anthocyanin (974.8 ± 23 µg/g) during the 2022 growing season were found in cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) in September.
According to the literature, anthocyanins are among the most important groups of biologically active compounds identified in cranberry fruit samples, possessing a range of disease-preventing and health-promoting effects [19]. The anthocyanin content of cranberry fruit samples increased, on average, by a factor of 2–4 in different years during the ripening period (September to October), making the timing of cranberry picking one of the most important factors influencing the qualitative and quantitative composition of anthocyanins in cranberry plant material. Studies on the qualitative and quantitative composition of anthocyanins are important for assessing the quality of cranberry plant material and for the development and production of healthy and organic cranberry products with a known composition.

2.2. Analysis of the Quantitative Composition of Proanthocyanidins

Proanthocyanidins detected in the bioactive compound matrix of cranberry fruit samples determine the effects of the fruit on the health of the urinary tract [20]. Proanthocyanidin dimers, trimers, oligomers, and polymers have been identified in cranberry fruit. A spectrophotometric method (the DMAC assay) is often used for the determination of the proanthocyanidin content in cranberry plant material and preparations derived from it. This spectrophotometric method is considered to be the fastest and most accurate method for the determination of the total amount of proanthocyanins in cranberry fruit samples, taking into account all the degrees of polymerization of proanthocyanidins [21,22].
We performed a comparative analysis of the total proanthocyanidin content of cranberry fruit samples harvested during the 2020–2022 growing season (Figure 3). We found that the total proanthocyanidin content of the cranberry fruit samples varied: in samples harvested in 2020, it ranged from 378.4 ± 10 µg EE/g to 2803 ± 75 µg EE/g; in samples harvested in 2021, it ranged from 628.3 ± 17 µg EE/g to 3167.7 ± 82 µg EE/g; and in samples harvested in 2022, it ranged from 1096.7 ± 29 µg EE/g to 3557.3 ± 75 µg EE/g (Figure 3). Šedbarė et al. found that the total amount of proanthocyanidins in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the habitats of the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves varied in a similar range—from 919 ± 19 µg EE/g to 3038 ± 137 µg EE/g [15].
The study of the proanthocyanidin content in cranberry fruits harvested in 2020 revealed that the highest levels of proanthocyanidin (2803 ± 75 µg EE/g) were found in cranberry fruits harvested on September 2 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D). Meanwhile, the lowest level of proanthocyanidins (378.4 ± 10 µg EE/g) was established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site B) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (21 April 2021). The levels of proanthocyanidin of the cranberry fruits harvested from this wetland habitat were not discernibly statistically different from the levels of proanthocyanidin of the fruits harvested from the oligotrophic habitats (sites D and E) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (21 April 2021).
In cranberry fruit samples harvested during the growing season of 2021, the highest total levels of proanthocyanidin compounds were found in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) from August 31 to September 28 (3167.7 ± 82 µg EE/g and 3075.1 ± 75 µg EE/g, respectively). The lowest total proanthocyanidin content (628.3 ± 17 µg EE/g) was found in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (23 March 2022).
The analysis of the total quantitative composition of proanthocyanidins in cranberry fruit samples harvested in 2022 revealed that the highest total proanthocyanidin content (3557.3 ± 75 µg EE/g) was detected in cranberry fruit samples harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) on November 9. The lowest total proanthocyanidin content (1096.7 ± 29 µg EE/g) established during the growing season of 2022 was found in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D) in November.
The proanthocyanidin content of the fruit samples harvested over the 3-year period varied during ripening (the coefficient of variation was 38.14%) (Figure 3). Cranberry samples harvested in October, November and after snowmelt showed lower levels of procyanidins compared to the total amounts of proanthocyanidins detected in cranberry fruit samples harvested at the end of August and beginning of September. Šedbarė et al. analyzed cranberry fruits harvested from the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves and established that the overall coefficient of variation of proanthocyanidins was 25.98% [15]. The levels of proanthocyanidins established in cranberry fruits harvested from September to mid-October in the Kamanai and Žuvintas habitats varied unevenly, and the variation was influenced by the type of the swamp habitat being investigated [15]. Yu et al. stated that environmental factors (low temperature, UV radiation and exposure to fungal strains) have a significant influence on proanthocyanidin synthesis. These climatic and related other factors affect the intensity of the synthesis of this group of compounds [23].
Analysis of V. oxycoccos fruit samples, performed by applying the ultra-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array-florescence (UPLC-PDA-FLR) method, shows that proanthocyanidins accounted for 63% of the phenolic compounds in cranberry fruit samples [24]. The high concentration of procyanidins in cranberries contributes to the characteristic slightly astringent and bitter taste of the fruit [25]. Proanthocyanidins have antioxidant properties in plants, protecting plants from the formation of free radicals and their damaging effects, as well as improving the ability of the plants to respond to a wide range of environmental stimuli [23].

2.3. Analysis of the Qualitative and Quantitative Composition of Flavonols

Flavonols are a specific class of phenols with a wide range of biological effects: antiallergic, antiviral, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects [26]. Quercetin established in cranberry fruit has been shown to affect cancer cells in the following organs: bladder [27], breast [28], and ovary [29]. Li et al. found that a flavonol fraction (myricetin and quercetin) isolated from cranberry fruit inhibited the adhesion of Escherichia coli to human bladder cells [30].
The analysis of the qualitative and quantitative composition of flavonols in cranberry fruit samples harvested during different growing seasons is presented in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
The flavonol composition profile of the bog cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) fruits grown under Lithuanian climatic conditions was characteristic of bog cranberry fruits [15]. The flavonol compounds quercetin-3-galactoside (34.9% ± 6.2%) and myricetin-3-galactoside (30.8% ± 6.2%) were the predominant flavonols in the cranberry fruit samples (Figure 4). Other compounds in the flavonol group were found in smaller amounts: quercetin-3-arabinofuranoside (12.3% ± 5.8%), quercetin-3-arabinopyranoside (4.7% ± 1.5%), quercetin-3-glucoside (5.2% ± 1.5%), quercetin-3-rhamnoside (4.6 ± 2.2%), quercetin (4.4% ± 3.1%), and myricetin (3.1% ± 2.2%) (Figure 4). The quantitative composition of flavonols extracted from fruit samples of V. oxycoccos in a study by Šedbarė et al. (quercetin-3-galactoside, 31.33% ± 5.10%, myricetin-3-galactoside, 31.38% ± 7.68%, quercetin-3-arabinofuranoside, 12.37% ± 2.41%, quercetin-3-arabinopyranoside, 4.57% ± 1.60%, quercetin-3-glucoside, 4.63% ± 2.84%, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, 4.87 ± 2.03%, quercetin, 2.02% ± 0.66%, and myricetin, 1.82% ± 0.71%) was consistent with the flavonol content of the fruit samples of V. oxycoccos found in this study [15].
We carried out a comparative analysis of the total flavonol content of V. oxycoccos fruit samples harvested during the growing season of 2020–2022 (Figure 5) and found that the total flavonol content of the cranberry fruit samples varied from 523.18 ± 9 µg/g to 3879.6 ± 39 µg/g in 2020, from 479.6 ± 9 µg/g to 5153.8 ± 129 µg/g in 2021, and from 771.7 ± 23 µg/g to 7291.2 ± 226 µg/g in 2022 (Figure 5). In cranberry fruit samples harvested in 2021 in habitats of the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves, the total flavonol content of cranberries varied less—from 518 ± 16 µg/g to 2811 ± 31 µg/g [15].
The analysis of the quantitative composition of flavonols in cranberry fruit samples harvested in 2020 revealed that the highest total anthocyanin content (3879.6 ± 39 µg/g) was found in cranberry fruit samples harvested on September 2 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D). The levels of flavonols of the cranberry fruits were not discernibly statistically different from those of the fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) on 2 September, 16 October, and 19 November. The lowest total levels of flavonol compounds (523.18 ± 9 µg/g) were established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site B) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (21 April 2021).
In cranberry fruit samples harvested during the growing season of 2021, the highest total flavonol content (5153.8 ± 129 µg/g) was detected in samples harvested on August 31 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E). The levels of flavonols in the fruits harvested at this site were not discernibly statistically different from the levels of flavonols of the cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) on September 28 or October 23. The lowest total levels of flavonol compounds (479.6 ± 9 µg/g) were established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (23 March 2022).
The study of the flavonol content in cranberry fruits harvested in 2022 showed that the maximum observed total levels of flavonols (7291.2 ± 226 µg/g) were established in cranberry fruits harvested on September 5 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E). Meanwhile, the lowest total levels of flavonols (518 ± 16 µg/g) during the growing season of 2022 was established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A) in November. The levels of flavonols of the fruits were not discernibly statistically different from those of the cranberry fruits harvested on October 3 or November 9 from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C).
In the oligotrophic wetland-type habitats (sites D and E), cranberry fruit samples harvested between 2020 and 2022 had a higher flavonol content than those harvested from the other sites did, and we found that flavonol content tended to increase over the years (2020 < 2021 < 2022). As the snow melted, the flavonol content of the cranberry fruit samples harvested either showed a statistically discernible decrease or remained unchanged. Šedbarė et al. investigated cranberry fruit samples harvested at the beginning of September and in October in 12 wetland habitats of the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves. The comparative analysis showed that the flavonol content of cranberry fruit samples harvested from five oligotrophic habitats was higher than that of samples harvested from five eutrophic or mesotrophic wetland habitats [15]. Albert et al. suggested that flavonol biosynthesis is influenced by light in plants, vegetative organs, developing flowers and fruits, and covering tissues (including UVA and UVB) [31]. In oligotrophic wetland habitats, cranberry groves are located in more open areas. Thus, direct exposure to light can affect the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds in cranberry fruit tissues. Nutrient deficiencies in oligotrophic wetland-type habitats may lead to increased plant stress and the increased synthesis of flavonol compounds [32,33]. In the analysis of cranberry fruit samples harvested at the end of August and the beginning of September in the years 2020–2022 for the determination of the correlation between weight per berry and flavonol content, we found that the flavonol content of the cranberry fruit samples negatively correlated with the weight per berry, the correlation coefficient being −0.828 (p < 0.05). Flavonols are more abundant in the skin of fruit. This is why, in the presence of unfavorable abiotic conditions, smaller berries have higher flavonol content [34,35].

2.4. Analysis of the Quantitative Composition of Chlorogenic Acid

Phenolic carboxylic acids are widespread in angiosperm plants [36]. They have a wide range of biological effects, and thus there is ongoing research into their identification [37]. Chlorogenic acid has been found to predominate in cranberry fruit plant material and has been shown to enhance the sensory and biological properties of the berries (reducing obesity, dyslipidemia, and arterial blood pressure) [25,38].
We carried out a comparative analysis of the chlorogenic acid content of V. oxycoccos fruit samples harvested during the plant growing season of 2020–2022 (Figure 6). We found that the amount of chlorogenic acid varied in the fruit samples harvested: 108.8 ± 2 µg/g to 1648.6 ± 53 µg/g in the growing season of 2020, 68.0 ± 1 µg/g to 1722.6 ± 30 µg/g in the growing season of 2021, and 71.2 ± 2 µg/g to 3858.2 ± 119 µg/g in the growing season of 2022 (Figure 6). The coefficient of variation in the cranberry fruit samples tested was 93.85%. Šedbarė et al. found that the amount of chlorogenic acid in bog cranberry samples varied from 17 ± 0.4 µg/g to 1224 ± 41 µg/g, with a coefficient of variation of 113.9% [15].
The assay of the quantitative composition of chlorogenic acid in cranberry fruits harvested in 2020 revealed that the maximum observed level of chlorogenic acid (1648.6 ± 53 µg/g) was established in cranberry fruit samples harvested on October 3 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E). On the contrary, the lowest level of chlorogenic acid (108.8 ± 2 µg/g) was established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A) in early September.
The evaluation of the quantitative composition of chlorogenic acid in cranberry fruits harvested in 2021 revealed that the maximum level of chlorogenic acid (1722.6 ± 30 µg/g) was established in cranberry fruits harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) in October. On the contrary, the lowest level of chlorogenic acid (68.0 ± 1 µg/g) was established in cranberry fruits harvested from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (23 March 2022).
In cranberry fruit samples harvested during the growing season of 2022, the highest amount of chlorogenic acid (3858.2 ± 119 µg/g) was detected in cranberry fruit samples harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) in early September. The lowest levels of chlorogenic acid (71.2 ± 2 µg/g and 74.5 ± 2 µg/g) were found in cranberry fruit samples harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) in September and November, accordingly.
Studies on the quantitative composition of chlorogenic acid in cranberry raw material allowed the determination of the content of chlorogenic acid in the raw material samples and its trends during fruit ripening over a 3-year period (2020–2022). Cranberry fruit samples harvested in different years in an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) showed the highest levels of chlorogenic acid. In other wetland habitats, the level of chlorogenic acid established in cranberries varied between multiple points of different seasons. Šedbarė et al. carried out a quantitative analysis of chlorogenic acid and established that cranberries harvested from one mesotrophic wetland habitat and one oligotrophic wetland habitat were found to contain high levels of chlorogenic acid [15]. Soviguidi et al. argue that during plant evolution, exposure to deleterious climatic environmental factors (e.g., drought, soil salinity, ionic toxicity, nutrient deficiency, and/or UV radiation) allows genes responsible for the chlorogenic acid biosynthesis-promoting effect to be established. The antioxidant properties of chlorogenic acid improve the plant’s ability to cope with adverse climatic factors [39].

2.5. Analysis of the Qualitative and Quantitative Composition of Triterpenoids

The outer surface of cranberries is covered with a waxy layer, which performs a protective function against water evaporation, microorganisms, UV rays and temperature changes. [40]. Triterpene compounds comprise about 50% of the waxy layer of cranberry fruit [41,42]. Triterpene compounds established in cranberries have antioxidant [43] and anti-inflammatory [44] properties. Murphy et al. found that triterpene compounds detected in cranberry fruit samples inhibited the growth of prostate, cervical, lung, breast, and colon tumors, as well as leukemia cells, in in vitro models [45].
The phytochemical profile of triterpenoids found in bog cranberry fruit samples harvested from wetland habitats in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve was characteristic of bog cranberry fruit (Figure 7) [46].
Ursolic acid was the predominant acid in the cranberry fruit samples, accounting for 76.8% ± 2.0% of the detected triterpenoids (Figure 7). Klavins et al. confirm that ursolic acid is the predominant triterpenoid in cranberry fruit [42]. The amount of oleanolic acid in cranberry fruit samples was 17.12% ± 1.3%. For the other triterpene compounds, lower levels were detected: the amount of maslinic acid was 0.83% ± 0.4%, the amount of corosolic acid was 3.2% ± 1.3%, the amount of α-amyrin was 1.65% ± 1.1%, and the amount of β-amyrin was 0.28% ± 0.5% (Figure 7). In a study by Šedbarė et al., the detected quantitative composition of triterpenoids in V. oxycoccos fruit samples (ursolic acid, 76.24% ± 1.91%, oleanolic acid, 17.44% ± 1.17%, maslinic acid, 0.91% ± 0.48%, corosolic acid, 3.32% ± 1.49%, α-amyrin, 1.98% ± 1.39%, and β-amyrin, 0.10% ± 0.24%) was consistent with the triterpenoid composition established in fruit samples of V. oxycoccos in the present study [15].
We carried out a comparative analysis of the total amounts of triterpenoids in V. oxycoccos fruit samples harvested during the 2020–2022 plant growing season (Figure 8). We found that the total amounts of triterpene compounds varied in the fruit samples harvested: during the 2020 growing season, they ranged from 4054.9 ± 101 µg/g to 6628.8 ± 238 µg/g; during the 2021 growing season, they ranged from 5346.1 ± 139 µg/g to 7226.9 ± 224 µg/g; and during the 2022 growing season, they varied from 3780.8 ± 98 µg/g to 5708.0 ± 80 µg/g (Figure 8). In a study by Šedbarė et al., the total amounts of triterpene compounds found in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves were found to be in similar ranges, from 4060 ± 122 µg/g to 6542 ± 157 µg/g [15].
In cranberry fruit samples harvested during the 2020 growing season, the highest triterpenoid content (6628.8 ± 238 µg/g) was detected in the samples harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (21 April 2021). The levels of triterpene compounds in the fruits harvested from this habitat were not discernibly statistically different from the total levels of triterpene compounds of cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D) or the mesotrophic wetland habitat (sites A and B) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (21 April 2021). The lowest levels of triterpenoids (4054.9 ± 101 µg/g) were established in the cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D) in November. These were not discernibly statistically different from the levels of triterpene compounds established in the cranberry fruits harvested from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) in November.
The study of the composition of triterpenoids in cranberry fruits harvested in 2021 showed that the maximum observed levels of triterpene compounds (7226.9 ± 224 µg/g) were established in cranberry fruits harvested from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) in the spring of the following year, after the snowmelt (23 March 2022). The levels of triterpene compounds in the cranberry fruits harvested from this habitat were not discernibly statistically different from the total levels of triterpenes in the fruits harvested from the mesotrophic wetland habitat (site B) the following spring on 23 March 2022 or from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site C) on 31 August 2021. The lowest total level of triterpenes (5346.1 ± 139 µg/g) was established in cranberry fruits harvested on August 31 from an oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D). The levels of triterpenes in the fruits were not discernibly statistically different (p > 0.05) from those established in most of the cranberry fruits harvested in August–November (Figure 8).
The analysis of the quantitative composition of triterpene compounds in cranberry fruit samples harvested in 2022 revealed that the maximum observed total amount of triterpene compounds (5708.0 ± 80 µg/g) was found in cranberry fruit samples harvested in November from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A). The quantitative composition of triterpene compounds detected in the fruit samples harvested from this habitat was not discernibly statistically different from that detected in the cranberry fruit samples harvested from the mesotrophic wetland habitat (site B) in October and November, from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site D) in August, or from the oligotrophic wetland habitat (site E) in November. The lowest triterpenoid content (3780.8 ± 98 µg/g) was detected in cranberry fruit samples harvested on August 31 from a mesotrophic wetland habitat (site A).
The amount of triterpene compounds in cranberry fruit samples harvested from the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve wetland habitats in August–November in different years (2020–2022) varied less than the content of phenolic compounds did (the coefficient of variation was 10.76%). Šedbarė et al. in their study found a similar variation (10.52%) in cranberry fruit samples harvested at the Kamanai and Žuvintas State Strict Nature Reserves [15].
The Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve is an area on the south-eastern edge of Lithuania [5]. The climate of the area is characterized by greater seasonal temperature contrasts compared to other parts of Lithuania due to the sandy wetland-type areas that easily warm up and easily lose their heat [5,47]. The continental climate of the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve, with its warmer summers and colder winters, also results in a longer-lasting snow cover, which is why, during the study period in 2021 and 2022, the snow melted in spring [47]. An increase in the amount of triterpene compounds was detected in cranberry fruit samples harvested in spring, after the snowmelt. Biswas and Dwivedi argue that abiotic stress factors (nutrient starvation, light, and temperature) affect the qualitative and quantitative composition of triterpene compounds, and that the biosynthesis of triterpenes is enhanced by external stimuli (pathogen attack, cold, and/or drought) [48]. The results of the studies on the variation of triterpenoid compounds suggest that the biosynthesis of triterpenoids in cranberry fruits is more intense in the spring when the plants are exposed to the climatic factors typical of the environment.

2.6. Comparative Analysis of the Phytochemical Composition of Cranberry Fruit Samples for the Period of 2020–2022

Changes in the composition of biologically active compounds during cranberry fruit development and ripening are determined using genetic factors [15], environmental conditions (soil composition, temperature, humidity, and light) [49], and the stage of the ripeness of the fruit [50]. The qualitative and quantitative composition of phenolic compounds and triterpene compounds in cranberry fruit samples varied over the 3-year study period and during the ripening stage. In order to systematize and summarize the obtained results, a comparative analysis of the trends in the accumulation of the qualitative and quantitative composition of biologically active compounds was carried out by means of heatmap visualization (Figure 9).
We established trends in terms of the higher or lower levels of some compounds in cranberries harvested from different wetland habitats. The model in Figure 9 shows that cranberries harvested from oligotrophic wetland habitats (sites E and D) contained higher levels of anthocyanins, anthocyanidins, flavonol glycosides, and proanthocyanidins. Cranberries harvested from mesotrophic wetland habitats (sites A and B) and oligotrophic wetland habitats (Site C) contained higher levels of triterpene compounds, among which maslinic and corosolic acids predominated.
The oligotrophic habitats (sites D and E) are located in the higher part of the Čepkeliai wetland, where lower plants such as Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum angustifolium, Polytrichum strictum, and Sphagnum capillifolium grow, which means that cranberries are exposed to direct sunlight for longer periods during the day. This creates favorable conditions for the biosynthesis of biologically active compounds in the fruit and influences the ripening process. Zhou et al. found that exposure to sunlight increased the total anthocyanin content of cranberry fruit by 75.3% in 24 h and by 87.2% in 48 h compared to a control sample kept in the dark [51]. Daryanavard et al. pointed out that flavonols protect plants against changes in environmental conditions and UV radiation, and that the biosynthesis of flavonol group compounds is enhanced by exposure to adverse abiotic environmental conditions [52].
Cranberry fruits of smaller weigh grew in oligotrophic-type (sites D and E) bogs. Consequently, smaller-weigh fruits accumulated a higher concentration of biologically active compounds. Correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between fruit size and flavonol content (−828, p < 0.05) and proanthocyanidin content (−0.642, p < 0.05). Similar results have been obtained in studies of other fruits of the genus Vaccinium [53,54]. No correlation was found between fruit weight and anthocyanin or triterpenoid content. No correlation was found between the pH value and the amount of identified compounds. Vorsa and Zalapa indicate that quantification of flavonol and proanthocyanidin content of cranberry fruit is based on a per whole-fruit fresh weight basis, and are not based on the concentrations of specific tissue, e.g., epidermis versus flesh [55]. In addition, the authors suggest that larger cranberry fruit might be expected to have a lower epidermis-to-pulp ratio, resulting in smaller cranberry fruit having higher flavonoid content [55].
Principal component analysis was carried out to assess the content variation of triterpene compounds, flavonols, chlorogenic acid, proanthocyanidins, and anthocyanins established in cranberries during the ripening of the berries in the period of 2020–2022 (Figure 10). Principal component I explained 46.82% of the total variance of the data and had a discernible correlation with the anthocyanidins (0.156), proanthocyanidins (0.687), chlorogenic acid (0.915), and flavonols (0.954). Principal component II explained 22.01% of the total variance of the data and had a discernible correlation with the triterpene compounds (−0.710), proanthocyanidins (0.315), and anthocyanidins (0.765).
Most of the cranberry fruit samples harvested at the end of August and the beginning of September were located in the negative area of principal component II. The harvested samples showed higher levels of proanthocyanidins and flavonols and low levels of anthocyanins. In the coordinate plane, the points of the cranberry fruit samples harvested in late September, October, and November were scattered in the positive area of principal component II. These samples contained the highest levels of anthocyanins, while the levels of flavonols, chlorogenic acid, and proanthocyanidins also remained high. The most significant changes in the quantitative composition of anthocyanins and anthocyanidins were found during fruit ripening [56]. Karppinen et al. reported that fruit ripening increases the transcription levels of enzymes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis: UDP-glucose flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), and chalcone synthase (CHS). In turn, this increases the anthocyanin content of the fruit [57]. The anthocyanin content of bog cranberry fruits increased on average by a factor ranging from 2 to 6 between the end of August and mid-November. The assessment of the ripening stage of the fruit, which determines the quantitative composition of the anthocyanin group of compounds in cranberry plant material, is important for the timing of harvesting in cranberry habitats.
The samples harvested in spring, after the snowmelt, were located in the area of negative values of principal components I and II. These cranberry fruit samples showed a decrease in the amounts of anthocyanins, flavonols, proanthocyanidins, and chlorogenic acid, while their levels of triterpene compounds were the highest.
As the quantitative composition of biologically active compounds changes during the ripening stage of cranberries, it is important to perform studies on the phytochemical composition of cranberry raw material in order to provide consumers with cranberry fruit raw material with a high commercial value and a known qualitative and quantitative composition. The highest levels of anthocyanins were found in samples of ripe cranberries. Anthocyanin levels varied depending on the period of fruit preparation and the characteristics of the types of habitats. The detected quantitative changes in flavonols, proanthocyanidins, and chlorogenic acid were lower than those in anthocyanins. Routine studies on the qualitative and quantitative composition of biologically active compounds in cranberry raw material would allow for the monitoring of the composition of cranberry raw material and its preparations and the prediction of their biological effects [58,59].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Chemicals

All the chemicals used in the experiments were of an analytical grade. Cyanidin chloride, cyanidin-3-galactoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-arabinoside, peonidin chloride, peonidin-3-arabinoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-galactoside, myricetin-3-galactoside, malvidin-3-galactoside, malvidin chloride, malvidin-3-arabinoside, delphinidin-3-galactoside (Extrasynthese, Genay, France), quercetin-3-O-glucoside (Biochemistry, Buchs, Switzerland), quercetin-3-galactoside, quercetin (Carl Roth, Karlsruhe, Germany), myricetin, quercetin-3-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-α-l-arabinofuranoside, quercetin-3-α-l-arabinopyranoside, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, α-Amyrin, β-Amyrin, corosolic acid, and maslinic acid (Sigma-Aldrich, Steinheim, Germany) were used as standards for the identification of the compounds. Acetone, methanol, acetonitrile, hydrochloric acid, and 4-(Dimethylamino) cinnamaldehyde) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany). Ethanol 96% (v/v) was purchased from AB Stumbras (Kaunas, Lithuania). Formic acid was bought from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).

3.2. Plant Material

Bog cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.) were harvested from five different places in the territory of the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve in 2020–2022 (Table 1). The cranberry sampling dates were 2 September 2020, 16 October 2020, 19 November 2020, 21 April 2021 (after the snowmelt), 31 August 2021, 28 September 2021, 23 October 2021, 23 March 2022 (after the snowmelt), 5 September 2022, 5 October 2022, and 9 November 2022.
Data on cranberry fruit weight and pH characteristics of wetland habitats are presented in Table 2. Wetland water acidity (pH) was measured in habitats. Berries were harvested 5 times in 0.25 m2 frames placed in random areas of wetland habitats. Afterwards, the berries were counted and weighed and the average values for 1 berry were calculated.
Samples of cranberry fruits were cut in half after harvesting and frozen at −60 °C in a freezer (CVF330/86, ClimasLab SL, Barcelona, Spain). Freeze-drying was performed in a lyophilizer (Zirbus Technology GmbH, Bad Grund, Germany). The samples were freeze-dried at a pressure of 0.01 mbar and at a condenser temperature of −85 °C. The dried samples were ground using a Retsch GM 200 electric mill (Retsch GmbH, Hahn, Germany). The moisture content of all cranberry fruit samples was measured using the European Pharmacopoeia method [60].

3.3. Sample Preparation by Extraction

An ultrasonic device (Elmasonic P, Elma Schmidbauer GmbH, Singen, Germany) was used for an ultrasound-assisted extraction procedure. For the extraction of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols, 1 g of lyophilized cranberry fruit powder was mixed with 20 mL of 70% ethanol acidified with 1% hydrochloric acid (v/v). When the procedure was performed using an effective ultrasonic power of 565 W and an ultrasonic frequency of 80 kHz at room temperature, the duration of ultrasonic extraction was 15 min. After the extraction, the prepared cranberry extracts were filtered into a 20 mL volumetric flask. Three extraction replicates were performed for each sample. The prepared cranberry extracts were stored at −20 °C for further analyses.
For the extraction of triterpenoids, 1 g of lyophilized cranberry fruit powder was mixed with 10 mL of 100% (v/v) acetone. When the procedure was performed using an effective ultrasonic power of 1130 W and an ultrasonic frequency of 80 kHz from 22 ± 1 °C to 60 ± 1 °C, the duration of ultrasonic extraction was 60 min. After the extraction, the prepared cranberry extracts were filtered into a 10 mL volumetric flask. Three extraction replicates were performed for each sample. The prepared cranberry extracts were stored at −20 °C for further analyses.

3.4. Spectrophotometric Studies

A spectrophotometer (M550 UV/Vis, Spectronic CamSpec, Garforth, UK) was used for spectrophotometry analysis. Proanthocyanidins were measured with DMCA (4-(dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde) [61]. Twenty microliters of the cranberry fruit extract were mixed with 3 mL of the DMCA reagent (0.1% DMCA (m/v) in ethanol–hydrochloric acid at 9:1 (v/v)). The blank was the DMCA solution without the extract. Optical density was measured with a spectrophotometer at 640 nm after 5 min. A standard curve was established beforehand with a (–)-epicatechin (µg/g (–)-epicatechin equivalent (EE) dry weight and a calibration equation of 𝑦 = 0.7021𝑥 + 0.0138. R2 = 0.9994.

3.5. UPLC Analysis

Phenolic compounds and triterpenoids were identified using a Waters ACQUITY UPLC chromatograph (Milford, MA, USA) equipped with a photodiode array detector (ACQUITY UPLC PDA eλ, Milford, MA, USA). The compounds were separated on a reverse-phase, 100 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm-particle-size ACE C18 analytical column (An Avantor ACE, ACT, Aberdeen, UK). Samples of the three cranberry fruit extracts were filtered through a filter with a pore size of 0.22 µm (Carl Roth GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany) into vials and injected into the UPLC system with a 1 μL volume injection. The data were collected using the Empower 3 (Waters) Software. The quantity of each compound was calculated using the calibration curve of the external standards. Concentrations were expressed in µg per g of dry weight.
The analysis of anthocyanins and anthocyanidins was performed using the validated technique previously described by Vilkickyte et al. [62]. The column was operated at 30 °C with the elution solvents A (100% acetonitrile) and B (10% formic acid in water) and a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. The gradient was as follows: 0–2 min, 95% B; 2–7 min, 91% B; 7–9 min, 88% B; 9–10 min, 75% B; 10–10.5 min, 20% B; 10.5–11 min, 20% B; and, finally, reconditioning of the column (11–12 min, 95% B). Anthocyanins were detected at a wavelength of 520 nm. The identification of anthocyanins in cranberry fruits samples was achieved by comparing retention times and UV/Vis spectra with the retention times and spectra of the external standards.
The analysis of flavonols and chlorogenic acid was performed using the validated technique previously described by Urbstaite et al. [63]. The column was operated at 30 °C with the elution solvents A (100% acetonitrile) and B (0.1% formic acid in water) and a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. The gradient was as follows: 0 min, 95% B; 0–1 min, 88% B; 1–3 min, 88% B; 3–4 min, 87% B; 4–9 min, 75% B; 9–10.5 min, 70% B; 10.5–12 min, 70% B; 12–12.5 min, 10% B; 12.5–13 min, 10% B; 13–13.5 min, 95% B; and 13.5–14.5 min, 95% B. The next injection was delayed for 2 min to allow the eluents in the column to equilibrate. Flavonols were detected at a wavelength of 360 nm, and chlorogenic acid was detected at a wavelength of 330 nm. The identification of flavonols and chlorogenic acid in cranberry fruits samples was achieved by comparing retention times and UV/Vis spectra with the retention times and spectra of the external standards.
Triterpenoid analysis was performed using the validated technique previously described by Sedbare et al. [46]. The column was operated at 25 °C with elution solvents A (100% methanol) and B (0.1% formic acid in water) and a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. The gradient was as follows: 0 min, 8% B; 0–8 min, 3% B; 8–9 min, 2% B; 9–29.5 min, 2% B; and, finally, reconditioning of the column (29.5–30 min, 8% B). The next injection was delayed for 10 min to allow the eluents in the column to equilibrate. Triterpene compounds were detected at a wavelength of 205 nm.

3.6. Data Analysis

The data were statistically analyzed using SPSS Statistics 21 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2016 (Microsoft, Redmond, DC, USA) with a 5% significance level for variation analysis. The Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA test was used to determine differences in the content of the identified compounds between cranberry samples. The data of the quantitative analysis were analyzed by applying principal component analysis (PCA). The means and standard deviations of the three independent evaluations were calculated.

4. Conclusions

Studies on the qualitative and quantitative composition of bog cranberry fruit samples provide new insights into the variation in the composition of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, chlorogenic acid, triterpenic compounds, and flavonols in cranberry fruit. These data are valuable for determining the optimum time for cranberry harvesting, for investigating the influence of different wetland habitats on the quantitative composition of bioactive compounds, for assessing the quality of cranberry fruit, and for evaluating the use of quality cranberry fruit raw material for food and health purposes.
The phytochemical composition of the cranberry fruits growing in high wetlands varied over the three-year period (2020–2022), but the overall patterns of change in bioactive compounds showed that the highest levels of bioactive compounds were concentrated in the oligotrophic habitats (sites D and E). These are located in the higher part of the Čepkeliai marsh, where the plants are lower and where they are exposed to direct sunlight and climatic conditions that enhance the biosynthesis of flavonoids. The most significant changes in anthocyanin content during ripening, with peak levels reached in October–November (when the fruit are fully ripe), resulted in a balanced content of bioactive compounds in the cranberry fruit samples.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.J. methodology, R.Š.; software, R.Š.; formal analysis, R.Š. and O.G.; investigation, R.Š. and O.G.; resources, V.J. and O.G.; data curation, V.J.; writing—original draft preparation, R.Š.; writing—review and editing, V.J.; visualization, R.Š.; supervision, V.J.; project administration, V.J.; funding acquisition, V.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated during this study are included in this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sample Availability

Not available.

References

  1. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis: A Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program) (Ed.) World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  2. Junk, W.J.; An, S.; Finlayson, C.M.; Gopal, B.; Květ, J.; Mitchell, S.A.; Mitsch, W.J.; Robarts, R.D. Current State of Knowledge Regarding the World’s Wetlands and Their Future under Global Climate Change: A Synthesis. Aquat. Sci. 2013, 75, 151–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Taminskas, J.; Pileckas, M.; Šimanauskienė, R.; Linkevičienė, R. Wetland Classification and Inventory in Lithuania. Baltica 2012, 25, 33–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Mažeika, J.; Guobytė, R.; Kibirkštis, G.; Petrošius, R.; Skuratovič, Ž.; Taminskas, J. The Use of Carbon-14 and Tritium for Peat and Water Dynamics Characterization: Case of Čepkeliai Peatland, Southeastern Lithuania. Geochronometria 2009, 34, 41–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Grigaitė, O.; Lapelė, M. Kontroliuojamo gaisro poveikis viržynų buveinėms ir saugomoms rūšims. In Gamtos Vertybių Būklė saugomose Teritorijose, 1st ed.; Pakalnis, R., Ed.; Lututė: Kaunas, Lithuania, 2017; pp. 27–39. [Google Scholar]
  6. Taminskas, J.; Linkevičienė, R.; Mažeika, J.; Kibirkštis, G. Raisto hidrometeorologinėms sąlygoms: Vertikaliosios vandens apytakos charakteristikoms. Ann. Geogr. 2008, 40, 50–59. [Google Scholar]
  7. Jurikova, T.; Skrovankova, S.; Mlcek, J.; Balla, S.; Snopek, L. Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity, and Biological Effects of European Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos). Molecules 2018, 24, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Česonienė, L.; Jasutienė, I.; Šarkinas, A. Phenolics and Anthocyanins in Berries of European Cranberry and Their Antimicrobial Activity. Medicina 2009, 45, 992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Narwojsz, A.; Tańska, M.; Mazur, B.; Borowska, E.J. Fruit Physical Features, Phenolic Compounds Profile and Inhibition Activities of Cranberry Cultivars (Vaccinium macrocarpon) Compared to Wild-Grown Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2019, 74, 300–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Kondo, M.; MacKinnon, S.L.; Craft, C.C.; Matchett, M.D.; Hurta, R.A.R.; Neto, C.C. Ursolic Acid and Its Esters: Occurrence in Cranberries and Other Vaccinium Fruit and Effects on Matrix Metalloproteinase Activity in DU145 Prostate Tumor Cells: Anti-Tumor Activity and Content of Ursolic Acid from Vaccinium Fruit. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2011, 91, 789–796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Brown, P.N.; Murch, S.J.; Shipley, P. Phytochemical Diversity of Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) Cultivars by Anthocyanin Determination and Metabolomic Profiling with Chemometric Analysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60, 261–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Stobnicka, A.; Gniewosz, M. Antimicrobial Protection of Minced Pork Meat with the Use of Swamp Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.) Fruit and Pomace Extracts. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 55, 62–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Ivavičiūtė, G. Change in the area of Lithuanian wetlands (2002–2021). In Proceedings of the Annual 28th Annual International Scientific Conference “Research for Rural Development 2022”, Conference Proceeding, Jelgava, Latvia, 18–20 May 2022; pp. 266–272. [Google Scholar]
  14. Osvalde, A.; Karlsons, A. Evaluation of the Nutrient Status of American Cranberry in Latvia during 2001–2007. Acta Hortic. 2010, 868, 213–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Šedbarė, R.; Sprainaitytė, S.; Baublys, G.; Viskelis, J.; Janulis, V. Phytochemical Composition of Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.) Fruits Growing in Protected Areas of Lithuania. Plants 2023, 12, 1974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Vorsa, N.; Polashock, J.J. Alteration of Anthocyanin Glycosylation in Cranberry Through Interspecific Hybridization. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 2005, 130, 711–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Areškevičiūtė, J.; Paulauskas, A.; Česoneinė, L.; Daubaras, R. Genetic Characterisation of Wild Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) from Čepkeliai Reserve by the RAPD Method. Biologija 2006, 52, 5–7. [Google Scholar]
  18. Česonienė, L.; Daubaras, R.; Jasutienė, I.; Venclovienė, J.; Miliauskienė, I. Evaluation of the Biochemical Components and Chromatic Properties of the Juice of Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton and Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2011, 66, 238–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Zafra-Stone, S.; Yasmin, T.; Bagchi, M.; Chatterjee, A.; Vinson, J.A.; Bagchi, D. Berry Anthocyanins as Novel Antioxidants in Human Health and Disease Prevention. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51, 675–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Singh, I.; Gautam, L.K.; Kaur, I.R. Effect of Oral Cranberry Extract (Standardized Proanthocyanidin-A) in Patients with Recurrent UTI by Pathogenic E. Coli: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Clinical Research Study. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 2016, 48, 1379–1386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Mannino, G.; Di Stefano, V.; Lauria, A.; Pitonzo, R.; Gentile, C. Vaccinium macrocarpon (Cranberry)-Based Dietary Supplements: Variation in Mass Uniformity, Proanthocyanidin Dosage and Anthocyanin Profile Demonstrates Quality Control Standard Needed. Nutrients 2020, 12, 992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Rupasinghe, V.; Neir, S.V.; Parmar, I. Polyphenol Characterization, Anti-Oxidant, Anti-Proliferation and Anti-Tyrosinase Activity of Cranberry Pomace. Funct. Foods Health Dis. 2016, 6, 754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Yu, D.; Huang, T.; Tian, B.; Zhan, J. Advances in Biosynthesis and Biological Functions of Proanthocyanidins in Horticultural Plants. Foods 2020, 9, 1774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Česonienė, L.; Daubaras, R. Phytochemical Composition of the Large Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and the Small Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos). In Nutritional Composition of Fruit Cultivars; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 173–194. [Google Scholar]
  25. Oszmiański, J.; Wojdyło, A.; Lachowicz, S.; Gorzelany, J.; Matłok, N. Comparison of Bioactive Potential of Cranberry Fruit and Fruit-Based Products versus Leaves. J. Funct. Foods 2016, 22, 232–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Sharma, A.; Sharma, P.; Singh Tuli, H.; Sharma, A.K. Phytochemical and Pharmacological Properties of Flavonols. In eLS; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2018; pp. 1–12. [Google Scholar]
  27. Prasain, J.K.; Grubbs, C.; Barnes, S. Cranberry Anti-Cancer Compounds and Their Uptake and Metabolism: An Updated Review. J. Berry Res. 2020, 10, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Neto, C.C. Cranberry and Its Phytochemicals: A Review of In Vitro Anticancer Studies. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 186S–193S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Wang, Y.; Han, A.; Chen, E.; Singh, R.K.; Chichester, C.O.; Moore, R.G.; Singh, A.P.; Vorsa, N. The Cranberry Flavonoids PAC DP-9 and Quercetin Aglycone Induce Cytotoxicity and Cell Cycle Arrest and Increase Cisplatin Sensitivity in Ovarian Cancer Cells. Int. J. Oncol. 2015, 46, 1924–1934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Li, S.; Zhao, S.; Christman, L.M.; Washington, T.L.; Gu, L. Anti-Adhesion Capacities of Selected Cranberry Polyphenols and Metabolites against P-Type and Type-1 Fimbriated Uropathogenic E. Coli Using a Fluorometric Method. Food Biosci. 2022, 49, 101960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Albert, N.W.; Iorizzo, M.; Mengist, M.F.; Montanari, S.; Zalapa, J.; Maule, A.; Edger, P.P.; Yocca, A.E.; Platts, A.E.; Pucker, B.; et al. Vaccinium as a Comparative System for Understanding of Complex Flavonoid Accumulation Profiles and Regulation in Fruit. Plant Physiol. 2023, 192, 1696–1710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Stewart, A.J.; Chapman, W.; Jenkins, G.I.; Graham, I.; Martin, T.; Crozier, A. The Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Deficiency on Flavonol Accumulation in Plant Tissues: Flavonol Accumulation in N- and P-Deficient Plant Tissues. Plant Cell Environ. 2001, 24, 1189–1197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Wang, F.; Ge, S.; Xu, X.; Xing, Y.; Du, X.; Zhang, X.; Lv, M.; Liu, J.; Zhu, Z.; Jiang, Y. Multiomics Analysis Reveals New Insights into the Apple Fruit Quality Decline under High Nitrogen Conditions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2021, 69, 5559–5572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Liu, L.; Gregan, S.; Winefield, C.; Jordan, B. From UVR8 to Flavonol Synthase: UV-B-Induced Gene Expression in Sauvignon Blanc Grape Berry: UV-B-Induced Gene Expression. Plant Cell Environ. 2015, 38, 905–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Oszmiański, J.; Kolniak-Ostek, J.; Lachowicz, S.; Gorzelany, J.; Matłok, N. Effect of Dried Powder Preparation Process on Polyphenolic Content and Antioxidant Capacity of Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon L.). Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 77, 658–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ghasemzadeh, A. Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids: Role and Biochemical Activity in Plants and Human. J. Med. Plants Res. 2011, 5, 6697–6702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Robbins, R.J. Phenolic Acids in Foods: An Overview of Analytical Methodology. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2866–2887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Santana-Gálvez, J.; Cisneros-Zevallos, L.; Jacobo-Velázquez, D. Chlorogenic Acid: Recent Advances on Its Dual Role as a Food Additive and a Nutraceutical against Metabolic Syndrome. Molecules 2017, 22, 358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  39. Reine Judesse Soviguidi, D.; Pan, R.; Liu, Y.; Rao, L.; Zhang, W.; Yang, X. Chlorogenic Acid Metabolism: The Evolution and Roles in Plant Response to Abiotic Stress. Phyton 2022, 91, 239–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Klavins, L.; Klavins, M. Cuticular Wax Composition of Wild and Cultivated Northern Berries. Foods 2020, 9, 587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Szakiel, A.; Pączkowski, C.; Pensec, F.; Bertsch, C. Fruit Cuticular Waxes as a Source of Biologically Active Triterpenoids. Phytochem. Rev. 2012, 11, 263–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Klavins, L.; Viksna, A.; Kviesis, J.; Klavins, M. Lipids of cultivated and wild Vaccinium Spp. Berries from Latvia. In Proceedings of the 13th Baltic Conference on Food Science and Technology “FOOD. NUTRITION. WELL-BEING.” FOODBALT 2019 Conference Proceeding, Jelgava, Latvia, 2–3 May 2019; pp. 198–203. [Google Scholar]
  43. Oszmiański, J.; Kolniak-Ostek, J.; Lachowicz, S.; Gorzelany, J.; Matłok, N. Phytochemical Compounds and Antioxidant Activity in Different Cultivars of Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon L.). J. Food Sci. 2017, 82, 2569–2575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Huang, Y.; Nikolic, D.; Pendland, S.; Doyle, B.J.; Locklear, T.D.; Mahady, G.B. Effects of Cranberry Extracts and Ursolic Acid Derivatives on P-Fimbriated Escherichia Coli, COX-2 Activity, pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Release and the NF-Κβ Transcriptional Response in Vitro. Pharm. Biol. 2009, 47, 18–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Murphy, B.T.; MacKinnon, S.L.; Yan, X.; Hammond, G.B.; Vaisberg, A.J.; Neto, C.C. Identification of Triterpene Hydroxycinnamates with in Vitro Antitumor Activity from Whole Cranberry Fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 3541–3545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Sedbare, R.; Raudone, L.; Zvikas, V.; Viskelis, J.; Liaudanskas, M.; Janulis, V. Development and Validation of the UPLC-DAD Methodology for the Detection of Triterpenoids and Phytosterols in Fruit Samples of Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton and Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Molecules 2022, 27, 4403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Kibirkštis, G. Čepkelių raistas ir jo vandenys. In Gamtos Vertybių Būklė Saugomose Teritorijose, 1st ed.; Pakalnis, R., Ed.; Lututė: Kaunas, Lithuania, 2017; pp. 41–50. [Google Scholar]
  48. Biswas, T.; Dwivedi, U.N. Plant Triterpenoid Saponins: Biosynthesis, in Vitro Production, and Pharmacological Relevance. Protoplasma 2019, 256, 1463–1486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Zhou, Y.; Singh, B.R. Red light stimulates flowering and anthocyanin biosynthesis in American cranberry. Plant Growth Regul. 2002, 38, 165–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Vvedenskaya, I.O.; Vorsa, N. Flavonoid Composition over Fruit Development and Maturation in American Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. Plant Sci. 2004, 167, 1043–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Zhou, Y.; Singh, B.R. Effect of Light on Anthocyanin Levels in Submerged, Harvested Cranberry Fruit. J. Biotechnol. Biomed. 2004, 5, 259–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  52. Daryanavard, H.; Postiglione, A.E.; Mühlemann, J.K.; Muday, G.K. Flavonols Modulate Plant Development, Signaling, and Stress Responses. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2023, 72, 102350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Aliman, J.; Michalak, I.; Bušatlić, E.; Aliman, L.; Kulina, M.; Radović, M.; Hasanbegović, J. Study of the Physicochemical Properties of Highbush Blueberry and Wild Bilberry Fruit in Central Bosnia. Turk. J. Agric. For. 2020, 44, 156–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Gündüz, K.; Serçe, S.; Hancock, J.F. Variation among Highbush and Rabbiteye Cultivars of Blueberry for Fruit Quality and Phytochemical Characteristics. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2015, 38, 69–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Vorsa, N.; Zalapa, J. Domestication, Genetics, and Genomics of the American Cranberry. In Plant Breeding Reviews, 1st ed.; Goldman, Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 279–315. [Google Scholar]
  56. Forney, C.F.; Kalt, W.; Jordan, M.A.; Vinqvist-Tymchuk, M.R.; Fillmore, S.A.E. Blueberry and cranberry fruit composition during development. J. Berry Res. 2012, 2, 169–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Karppinen, K.; Zoratti, L.; Nguyenquynh, N.; Häggman, H.; Jaakola, L. On the Developmental and Environmental Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Vaccinium spp. Berries. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. Gardana, C.; Scialpi, A.; Fachechi, C.; Simonetti, P. Identification of Markers for the Authentication of Cranberry Extract and Cranberry-Based Food Supplements. Heliyon 2020, 6, e03863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Lee, J. Anthocyanin analyses of Vaccinium fruit dietary supplements. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 4, 742–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Council of Europe. European Pharmacopoeia, 10th ed.; Council of Europe: Strasbourg, France, 2019; p. 51. [Google Scholar]
  61. Heil, M.; Baumann, B.; Andary, C.; Linsenmair, E.K.; McKey, D. Extraction and Quantification of “Condensed Tannins” as a Measure of Plant Anti-Herbivore Defence? Revisiting an Old Problem. Naturwissenschaften 2002, 89, 519–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Vilkickyte, G.; Motiekaityte, V.; Vainoriene, R.; Liaudanskas, M.; Raudone, L. Development, Validation, and Application of UPLC-PDA Method for Anthocyanins Profiling in Vaccinium L. Berries. J. Berry Res. 2021, 11, 583–599. [Google Scholar]
  63. Urbstaite, R.; Raudone, L.; Liaudanskas, M.; Janulis, V. Development, Validation, and Application of the UPLC-DAD Methodology for the Evaluation of the Qualitative and Quan-titative Composition of Phenolic Compounds in the Fruit of American Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton). Molecules 2022, 27, 467. [Google Scholar]
Molecules 28 05888 g001
Figure 1. Percentage distribution of identified anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Figure 1. Percentage distribution of identified anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Molecules 28 05888 g001
Molecules 28 05888 g002
Figure 2. Amount of anthocyanins in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of anthocyanins in the tested cranberry fruits.
Figure 2. Amount of anthocyanins in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of anthocyanins in the tested cranberry fruits.
Molecules 28 05888 g002
Molecules 28 05888 g003
Figure 3. Total proanthocyanidins content in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between total proanthocyanidins content in the tested cranberry fruits.
Figure 3. Total proanthocyanidins content in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between total proanthocyanidins content in the tested cranberry fruits.
Molecules 28 05888 g003
Molecules 28 05888 g004
Figure 4. Percentage distribution of identified flavonols in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Figure 4. Percentage distribution of identified flavonols in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Molecules 28 05888 g004
Molecules 28 05888 g005
Figure 5. Amount of flavonols in cranberry fruit samples. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of flavonols in the tested cranberry fruits. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1.
Figure 5. Amount of flavonols in cranberry fruit samples. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of flavonols in the tested cranberry fruits. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1.
Molecules 28 05888 g005
Molecules 28 05888 g006
Figure 6. Chlorogenic acid content in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the chlorogenic acid content in the tested cranberry fruits.
Figure 6. Chlorogenic acid content in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the chlorogenic acid content in the tested cranberry fruits.
Molecules 28 05888 g006
Molecules 28 05888 g007
Figure 7. Percentage distribution of identified triterpenoids in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Figure 7. Percentage distribution of identified triterpenoids in cranberry fruit samples harvested from different wetland habitats. Descriptions of wetland habitats marked with different letters (A–E) are given in Table 1.
Molecules 28 05888 g007
Molecules 28 05888 g008
Figure 8. Amount of triterpenoids in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of triterpenoids in the tested cranberry fruits.
Figure 8. Amount of triterpenoids in cranberry fruit samples. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1. Alphabetic letters indicate the significant difference (p < 0.05) between the sum of triterpenoids in the tested cranberry fruits.
Molecules 28 05888 g008
Molecules 28 05888 g009
Figure 9. Heat map of individual constituent content (%) in cranberry fruits according to their wetland habitat. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1.
Figure 9. Heat map of individual constituent content (%) in cranberry fruits according to their wetland habitat. The wetland habitats (A–E) of the cranberry fruit sampling sites are described in Table 1.
Molecules 28 05888 g009
Molecules 28 05888 g010
Figure 10. Principal component analysis loading (A) and score (B) plots of different cranberry samples.
Figure 10. Principal component analysis loading (A) and score (B) plots of different cranberry samples.
Molecules 28 05888 g010
Table 1. Description of cranberry fruit harvesting areas.
Table 1. Description of cranberry fruit harvesting areas.
SiteCoordinatesAltitude
(m)		Characteristics of the Wetland Environment
Molecules 28 05888 i00153°59′3.13″ N, 24°26′49.37″ E130.7Mesotrophic habitat; ass. Betuletum pubescentis (Hueck 29) Tx. 37.
Dominant plants: Betula pubescens, Phragmites australis, Carex rostrata, Sphagnum palustre.
Molecules 28 05888 i00253°59′7.31” N,
24°26′49″ E		131.7Mesotrophic habitat; ass. Betuletum pubescentis (Hueck 29) Tx. 37.
Dominant plants: Betula pubescens, Calla palustris Eriophorum vaginatum, Oxycoccus palustris, Sphagnum cuspidatum.
Molecules 28 05888 i00353°59′9.85″ N, 24°26′53.7″ E132.0Oligotrophic habitat; Ass. Ledo-Pinetum Tx.55.
Dominant plants: Pinus sylvestris f. Litwinowii, Rhododendron tomentosum, Eriophorum vaginatum, Oxycoccus palustris, Sphagnum magellanicum s. l.
Molecules 28 05888 i00453°59′18.35″ N, 24°27′7.48″ E132.3Oligotrophic habitat; ass. Sphagnetum magellanici (Malcuit 1929) Kästner et Flössner 1933.
Dominant plants: Pinus sylvestris f. Wilkommii, Calluna vulgaris, Oxycoccus palustris, Sphagnum magellanicum s.l., Sphagnum angustifolium.
Molecules 28 05888 i00553°59′37.86″ N, 24°27′44.93″ E132.6Oligotrophic habitats; ass. Sphagnetum magellanici (Malcuit 1929) Kästner et Flössner 1933.
Dominant plants: Oxycoccus palustris, Eriophorum vaginatum, Sphagnum capillifolium ir Polytrichum strictum.
Table 2. Data on cranberry fruit mass and pH characteristics of wetland habitats.
Table 2. Data on cranberry fruit mass and pH characteristics of wetland habitats.
SiteAverage Weight of 1 Berry 2020Average Weight of 1 Berry 2021Average Weight of 1 Berry 2022pH 2020pH 2021pH 2022
A0.420.640.664.274.053.78
B0.540.660.454.423.933.66
C0.620.500.604.273.923.50
D0.350.340.363.683.943.63
E0.370.320.203.604.284.36
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Šedbarė, R.; Grigaitė, O.; Janulis, V. Peculiarities of the Variation of Biologically Active Compounds in Fruit of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Growing in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve. Molecules 2023, 28, 5888. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155888

AMA Style

Šedbarė R, Grigaitė O, Janulis V. Peculiarities of the Variation of Biologically Active Compounds in Fruit of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Growing in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve. Molecules. 2023; 28(15):5888. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155888

Chicago/Turabian Style

Šedbarė, Rima, Onutė Grigaitė, and Valdimaras Janulis. 2023. "Peculiarities of the Variation of Biologically Active Compounds in Fruit of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Growing in the Čepkeliai State Strict Nature Reserve" Molecules 28, no. 15: 5888. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28155888

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop