Construction of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ Z-Scheme Heterojunction Composites with Visible Light Response for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation

Abstract

Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ photocatalytic composites were synthesized via calcination and hydrothermal synthesis for the degradation of rhodamine B (RhB) in wastewater, and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). The degradation of RhB by Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites was investigated to evaluate their photocatalytic performance and cyclic degradation stability. The experimental results showed that the composites demonstrated notable photocatalytic activity and stability during degradation. Their high degradation efficiency is attributed to the Z-scheme transfer mechanism, in which the electrons in the Ag₃PO₄ conduction band and the holes in the g-C₃N₄ valence band are annihilated by heterojunction recombination, which greatly limits the recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes in the catalyst and enhances the activity of the composite photocatalyst. In addition, measurements of photocurrent (PC) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) confirmed that the efficient charge separation of photo-generated charges stemmed from strong interactions at the close contact interface. Finally, the mechanism for catalytic enhancement in the composite photocatalysts was proposed based on hole and radical trapping experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis, and work function evaluation.

1. Introduction

The utilization of nanomaterials in semiconductor photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants offers high efficiency and low cost, making it a promising approach [1,2,3,4]. Recently, silver phosphate (Ag₃PO₄) has garnered significant attention for its outstanding photocatalytic performance in degrading organic pollutants under visible light irradiation [5]. Nevertheless, Ag₃PO₄ typically faces challenges such as high carrier complexity, severe photocorrosion, and a relatively large particle size, which notably restrict its photocatalytic performance [6,7,8]. In order to overcome these shortcomings and improve its photocatalytic efficiency and durability, the formation of a semiconductor heterojunction has been employed to enhance both the photocatalytic performance and stability of Ag₃PO₄.

It has been demonstrated that the heterojunction structure based on Ag₃PO₄ can effectively enhance the separation of photogenerated electron hole pairs, thereby promoting the generation of more reactive oxygen species [9,10]. This enhances the applicability of Ag₃PO₄ in solar photocatalysis. Therefore, constructing a Z-scheme is an effective method to enhance the photocatalytic activity of Ag₃PO₄ [11,12,13].

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄), a promising visible light-responsive photocatalyst, has been widely used in photoelectrocatalysis because of its stable chemical properties and remarkable responsiveness to visible light [14,15]. However, g-C₃N₄ is plagued by a wide band gap, high carrier complexity, and limited visible light response range [16,17]. The modification of g-C₃N₄-based photocatalysts can be investigated by expanding their light absorption range, which requires a narrower band gap. Furthermore, enhancing the acquisition or retention of electrons and holes with potent redox capability requires the presence of a more positive valence band and a more negative conduction band potential. Therefore, g-C₃N₄ forms heterojunctions with other semiconductors, but acquiring or retaining electrons and holes with potent redox capability demands a more positive valence band and a more negative conduction band potential. This not only broadens the light absorption range but also modulates the energy band structure to enhance the efficiency of charge-carrier separation. This results in a substantial reduction in the carrier complexation rate and an increase in the collection and utilization of visible light, significantly boosting the photocatalytic activity [18,19].

Constructing heterostructures for photocatalysts has emerged as a mainstream approach to enhance visible light utilization and expedite charge transfer and separation, thus overcoming the drawbacks of g-C₃N₄. Fewer factors are considered for constructing g-C₃N₄ heterojunctions [20] and the selected semiconductor generally only needs to have a suitably matched energy band structure. Based on the above analysis, the forbidden band widths of Ag₃PO₄ and g-C₃N₄ result in a staggered alignment, enabling the formation of an Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ heterojunction that demonstrates excellent photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation [21,22,23].

Therefore, according to the previous research on Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites, the band structure of the semiconductor was determined by using the small angle valence band and tauc plots in combination with the Mott–Schottky curves. The direction of photogenerated carrier transfer was inferred from the work function, and further analysis focused on the catalytic degradation mechanism of the composites.

In this study, Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ heterojunction composites were prepared via simple calcination and hydrothermal methods. Simulated RhB solution was used to assess the degradation of organic pollutants and their role in RhB photodegradation. The experimental results confirmed that Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites exhibited high photocatalytic activity. Additionally, various advanced characterization techniques were used to characterize and analyze the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites. Subsequently, a potential light-driven catalytic enhancement mechanism for Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ was proposed.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Structure and Microscopic Morphology of the Samples

As can be seen from Figure 1a, two diffraction peaks of g-C₃N₄ appear at 2θ of 13.2° and 27.6°, corresponding to crystal planes (100) and (002), respectively [24,25]. The peak at 13.1° corresponds to the planar stacking structure of tri-s-triazine units within g-C₃N₄, while the diffraction peak at 27.6° is related to the interlayer stacking of graphite-like structures. These observations are consistent with previous research, confirming the successful preparation of graphitic phase carbon nitride. The 2θ of the diffraction peaks in the Ag₃PO₄ sample were 20.9°, 29.7°, 33.3°, 36.6°, 47.8°, 52.7°, 55.0°, 57.3°, 69.9°, and 71.9°, which corresponded to the diffraction peaks in the Ag₃PO₄ standardized atlas (PDF# 06-0505) of (110), (200), (210), (211), (310), (222), (320), (321), (400), (420), and (421) crystal planes. The absence of additional peaks confirms the high purity of the prepared Ag₃PO₄ [26,27]. The phase of Ag₃PO₄ remained unchanged in the composite catalyst Ag₃PO₄/gC₃N₄, whereas the (100) crystalline surface of g-C₃N₄ disappeared. This may be due to the low diffraction intensity of the (100) crystalline surface or the insufficient range of detection values [28]. It is noteworthy that the intensity of the Ag₃PO₄ diffraction peaks appeared reduced in Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄, indicating that the introduction of g-C₃N₄ did not alter the material’s structure. The EDS energy spectrum in Figure 1b confirms the presence of Ag, P, C, N, and O elements in the sample.

In order to obtain the specific surface area of the prepared adsorbent materials, BET specific surface area tests were carried out on g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄, and the results are shown in Figure 1c. Both g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ exhibited H₃-type hysteresis loops in their N₂ adsorption and desorption isotherms, characteristic of type IV isotherms. These observations were attributed to the stacking of Ag₃PO₄ particles and massive g-C₃N₄. This phenomenon can be attributed to the formation of slit holes in the Ag₃PO₄ particles and massive g-C₃N₄. The composite of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ exhibited a significantly increased specific surface area. An increased specific surface area enhances the availability of charge transfer channels and catalytic active sites.

The morphology of Ag₃PO₄ particles, illustrated in Figure 2a, appears irregularly spherical and agglomerated. As shown in Figure 2b, the pure g-C₃N₄ is an aggregated flocculent structure, which has the typical characteristics of g-C₃N₄ synthesized by thermal polymerization. When Ag₃PO₄ and g-C₃N₄ were combined (Figure 2c), their basic morphological features remain unchanged, resulting in a compact composite structure. In addition, Figure 2d reveals the close contact between Ag₃PO₄ and g-C₃N₄, forming a heterojunction with a crystal plane spacing of 0.2689 nm, which is consistent with the (210) crystal plane spacing of Ag₃PO₄. Notably, the high specific surface area of g-C₃N₄ facilitates enhanced adsorption of pollutant molecules during photocatalytic reactions. Simultaneously, the heterostructure formed between g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ facilitates the separation of photogenerated electrons and holes, thereby enhancing the photocatalytic activity [29,30]. In summary, the successful construction of the photocatalytic composite Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ heterojunction is demonstrated.

2.2. XPS Analysis

The chemical composition and valence states of the various substances were determined using XPS measurements. Figure 3a presents the survey XPS spectrum of the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composite, revealing the presence of oxygen, silver, phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen. Figure 3b shows that the Ag 3d peaks with binding energies at 367.68 and 373.88 eV correspond to the Ag 3d_5/2 and Ag 3d_3/2 characteristic peaks, respectively, indicating the presence of silver in the composite photocatalysts [31,32]. As seen in Figure 3c, the peak of the P 2p spectrum at 132.95 eV can be attributed to the phosphorus in Ag₃PO₄. The N 1s XPS spectrum (Figure 3d) is decomposed into four peaks. The peak at 397.97 eV corresponds to the sp² hybridized nitrogen (C-N=C) in the triazine ring due to the presence of different N-bonds in the repeating unit of the ring. The peaks at 398.85 and 400.57 eV are attributed to tertiary nitrogen N-(C)₃ and terminal amino C-N-H, respectively [33,34]. The peak at the center of 404.62 eV is attributed to positive charge localization or charging effects in the cyano and heterocyclic rings or N-oxides. The C 1s spectra of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ show two peaks (Figure 3e): 287.17 eV, corresponding to sp² C atoms bonded to N (C-(N)₃), and 285.69 eV, corresponding to amorphous carbon. Figure 3f displays the O 1s spectra. The peaks at 530.61 and 532.49 eV are attributed to the oxygen in the Ag₃PO₄ lattice and the surface oxygen species of the composites, respectively, including hydroxyl or carboxyl oxygen groups [35]. It is worth noting that after the combination of two single catalysts, the element binding energy of the composite material shifts compared to that of the pure catalyst, indicating a changed chemical environment and a strong interaction between Ag₃PO₄ and g-C₃N₄. Therefore, the composite material is not a simple physical mixture: Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ have achieved Z-scheme heterojunction.

2.3. Analysis of the Energy Band Structure

The light response characteristics of the samples were analyzed using UV–vis DRS. Figure 4a illustrates that the absorption intensity of the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites changes in the visible range, exhibiting a broader range compared to pure g-C₃N₄. Furthermore, the addition of Ag₃PO₄ promoted the absorption of g-C₃N₄ in the visible range and improved its utilization, as evidenced by the red-shifted absorption bands observed in the composites [36,37]. Moreover, the forbidden band gaps of g-C₃N₄, Ag₃PO₄ and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ are 2.68, 2.37 and 2.46 eV, respectively, as determined from the plot of (αhν)² versus hν in Figure 4b. It is interesting to note that the forbidden bandwidth of the composites is narrower than that of g-C₃N₄, which suggests that the introduction of Ag₃PO₄ enhances the responsiveness of the photocatalysts to light and facilitates the absorption of lower energy photons.

Based on the VB-XPS plots of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ (Figure 4c,d), their VB-XPS potentials of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ are 0.92 and 3.02 eV, respectively. Therefore, using the formula:

$${\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{NHE}}=\phi +{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{VB}-\mathrm{XPS}}-4.44$$

where E_NHE is the standard hydrogen electrode potential, φ is the electron work function of the XPS analyzer with a value of 4.55, and E_VB-XPS is the VB value tested by VB-XPS, the VB values of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ were calculated as 1.03 and 3.13 eV, respectively [38,39]. Subsequently, the conduction band (CB) values for g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ were determined to be −1.65 and 0.75 eV, respectively, using the Nernst equation.

2.4. Optoelectronic Characteristics

Various techniques including electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, photocurrent testing, and photoluminescence are valuable for analyzing the efficiency of charge separation and transfer. Figure 5a illustrates that the charge transfer impedance of g-C₃N₄ is larger than that of Ag₃PO₄. This result is consistent with its weaker transient photocurrent results. Conversely, the impedance arc of the g-C₃N₄ composite with Ag₃PO₄ is significantly reduced, indicating lower charge transport resistance in the composite photocatalytic material. These findings suggest that the coupling of g-C₃N₄ with Ag₃PO₄ can effectively regulate the separation and migration efficiency of the carriers [40,41].

As depicted in Figure 5b, the individual photocurrent of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ is low under visible light irradiation conditions. However, when g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ were composited, the composite material exhibited a significantly increased photocurrent density of 7.5 μA. This suggests that the successful construction of a heterojunction with g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ effectively enhances the efficiency of photogenerated carrier migration [42,43]. This study investigated the separation efficiency of electron hole pairs in photocatalysts using the PL technique.

The PL spectra of g-C₃N₄, Ag₃PO₄, and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ samples are presented in Figure 5c. Pure g-C₃N₄ exhibits a strong emission peak at approximately 425 nm, resulting from the complex reaction between electron and hole pairs. In contrast, the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ sample exhibits the weakest PL signal, indicating significant suppression of the recombination of photoexcited carriers [44,45]. These findings suggest that the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composites are superior to g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ samples in separating electron hole pairs, consequently enhancing the photocatalytic activity.

2.5. Evaluation of Photocatalytic Activity and Stability

The photocatalytic activity of the prepared samples was evaluated by degrading RhB solution under visible light irradiation. From Figure 6a, it can be seen that RhB self-degraded about 3% after 1 h of irradiation under visible light, indicating that the self-degradation of RhB is minimal. This indicates that RhB can be used as a target pollutant for evaluating photocatalytic degradation and catalytic activity. In the absence of light, all samples showed a certain degree of degradation, which might be caused by surface adsorption and photosensitization. While individual samples degraded a small amount of RhB solution, the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composite showed superior degradation performance. This enhancement could be attributed to the random stacking of nanosheets after composite formation, which increased the specific surface area.

It can also be seen from Figure 6a that the degradation rate of RhB by g-C₃N₄ changed minimally after 1 h of light exposure, achieving only 38%; in contrast, Ag₃PO₄ achieved 85%, and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ notably reached 99.8%. This indicates that the visible light degradation efficiency of the composite photocatalytic material is significantly improved, which is mainly due to the narrower forbidden band width of the composite photocatalyst. It can better absorb and utilize the visible light, and its optical absorption characteristics are significantly enhanced. The heterojunction facilitates the separation and transmission of photogenerated carriers, enabling the composite material to effectively degrade organic pollutants. This leads to the highest photocatalytic degradation efficiency [46,47].

To further investigate the degradation performance of the composite photocatalysts, we investigated the kinetics of RhB photocatalytic degradation in the samples. The catalytic degradation process exhibited a one-stage reaction, as indicated by the −ln(C_t/C₀) versus time plot (Figure 6b). The photocatalytic apparent rate constants of the samples g-C₃N₄, Ag₃PO₄ and Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ were obtained as 0.00747, 0.02849 and 0.11536 min⁻¹, respectively. Notably, the degradation rate constants of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ were 15.48 and 4.06 times higher than those of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄, respectively.

The photocatalytic stability of the samples was evaluated by RhB photocatalytic degradation cycle experiments. Figure 6c displays the degradation efficiencies of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ for various concentrations of RhB. The photocatalytic efficiency of the composites decreased with the increase in RhB concentration. In the RhB mass concentration of 16 mg·L⁻¹ system, the degradation efficiency of RhB was maintained at about 95% within 60 min. In the RhB mass concentration of 12, 8 and 4 mg·L⁻¹ system, an almost 100% degradation rate can be achieved within 60 min. Therefore, a high initial concentration of RhB is not conducive to the photocatalytic degradation process. This effect may stem from the high concentration of substrate in the reaction system, which diminishes light absorption and utilization by the material, thereby reducing the excitation energy of photogenerated electron hole pairs and hindering the photocatalytic performance of the system.

As shown in Figure 6d,e, the degradation rate of RhB by Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ remained above 89.1% after five cycles, demonstrating the high stability and reusability of the composite nanofiber material. This suggests its potential as a novel composite photocatalytic material for industrial wastewater purification. The XRD spectra of the composite photocatalysts before and after five degradation cycles are shown in Figure 6f. The intensity of the diffraction peaks of the samples did not decrease significantly, indicating that the crystal structure of the composite photocatalysts remained stable during the catalytic degradation process.

2.6. Photocatalytic Enhancement Mechanism

The mechanisms of the primary active species involved in the photo-catalytic reaction of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ were investigated through capture experiments. Figure 7a displays these results. The addition of BQ or IPA led to a decrease in the degradation rate of RhB from 99.8% to 35.1% and 23.9%, respectively. This indicates that ·OH and $\cdot {\mathrm{O}}_2^{-}$ play crucial roles in the degradation of RhB. This result is plausible due to the E_CB value of −1.65 eV for g-C₃N₄, which facilitates the highly reductive nature of photogenerated electrons capable of reducing O₂ to $\cdot {\mathrm{O}}_2^{-}$ (O₂/$\cdot {\mathrm{O}}_2^{-}$(−0.33 eV vs. NHE)). Moreover, Ag₃PO₄ has an E_VB value of 3.13 eV (H₂O/·OH (2.77 eV vs. NHE)) and can oxidize H₂O to ∙OH. Adding EDTA-2Na did not reduce the breakdown of RhB much, indicating that h⁺ is not the main factor in this process.

In order to investigate the possible photocatalytic mechanism of the Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ heterojunction, the flat band potential of Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ was characterized. Mott–Schottky (M–S) curves of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ were examined at a frequency of 1000 Hz to determine their semiconductor properties. As shown in Figure 7b, the M–S curve of g-C₃N₄ exhibits a positive slope, indicating it is an n-type semiconductor. The M–S curve of Ag₃PO₄ showed a negative slope, confirming its p-type semiconductor nature. This suggests the formation of a p–n heterojunction between g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄. In addition, the flat-band potentials (E_fb,Ag/AgCl) of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ measured at pH = 7, Ag/AgCl electrode conditions were −1.45 and 0.55 eV, respectively. These E_fb values were subsequently converted to the standard hydrogen electrode potential by the equation E_fb,NHE = E_fb,Ag/AgCl ± 0.197, from which the E_fb,NHE was calculated to be −1.65 and 0.75 eV for g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄, respectively [48,49]. Therefore, based on the above valence band values of g-C₃N₄-VB and Ag₃PO₄-VB (1.03 and 3.13 eV, respectively), the band gap of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ can be calculated by the formula: E_VB − E_CB = E_g. The band gaps of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ are 2.68 and 2.38 eV, respectively, which is in agreement with Figure 4b.

Determining the work function difference between semiconductor materials is crucial for analyzing the direction of charge transfer at the material interface. Figure 7c,d depicts the work functions of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ obtained through small-angle valence band XPS spectroscopy (VB-XPS) measurements. When two semiconductor materials come into contact, electrons tend to migrate toward the material with the higher work function. Conversely, the material with the smaller work function tends to lose electrons until the Fermi energy levels of the two materials reach equilibrium. Consequently, the surface of the material with the lower work function becomes positively charged, while the surface of the material with the higher work function becomes negatively charged, creating a built-in electric field at the contact interface. According to the equation Φ = ΔV + φ (Φ is the work function of the sample, φ is 4.55 eV), ΔV is obtained from the distance between IP1 and IP2 (IP1 is the point of change of the binding energy with respect to the baseline and IP2 is the midpoint of the corresponding Fermi fringe curve) [50]. The distances between the two IP points of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ are calculated as 1.24 and 2.16 eV, respectively. Therefore, the work functions of g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ are calculated as 5.79 and 6.71 eV, respectively.

Theoretically, due to g-C₃N₄’s higher energy band edge and Fermi energy level compared to Ag₃PO₄, there is a high probability for the formation of Z-scheme complexes between these two materials. When the two semiconductors are in contact, the band edges in g-C₃N₄ continuously bend upward toward the interface, while the band edges in Ag₃PO₄ bend downward to the interface. As a result of the disruption of the charge transfer channel at the interface, photogenerated electrons from Ag₃PO₄ and holes from g-C₃N₄ may form complexes with each other instead of migrating into the energy band of the opposite semiconductor. Therefore, the electrons of g-C₃N₄ with high redox capacity and the holes of Ag₃PO₄ can be retained for the photocatalytic process, following the typical Z-scheme mechanism (Figure 8) [51,52,53].

3. Experimental Section

3.1. Reagents

Melamine (99% purity), silver nitrate (AgNO₃), polyvinylpyrrolidone, disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate (Na₂HPO₄·12H₂O), and rhodamine B (RhB) were purchased from Sinopharm Group Chemical Reagent Co. All chemicals were of analytical purity (AR) and were not further purified. Solutions were prepared using deionized water and used immediately.

3.2. Preparation of Samples

Typically, melamine (15.0462 g) was ground into a porcelain crucible, covered with a lid and heated to 550 °C for 4 h at a rate of 5 °C/min. After it was cooled to room temperature, the yellow-colored lumps of g-C₃N₄ were obtained, and the sample of g-C₃N₄ was obtained by grinding it into powder.

The g-C₃N₄ powder (0.1998 g) and AgNO₃ (1.0010 g) were dissolved in 100 mL of deionized water. An amount of aqueous disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate (1.7899 g) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (1.2002 g) were added dropwise to the above solution under vigorous stirring. Stirring continued for 1 h, 150 mL of the solution was placed in a high-pressure reactor 200 °C constant temperature for 24 h. Then, the mixture was cooled to room temperature, filtered, and the resulting filtrate was washed three times with deionized water and then three times with ethanol. Finally, the filtrate was dried in a vacuum drying oven at 60 °C for 12 h. The sample was prepared as Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄. The Ag₃PO₄ sample was synthesized in the same manner, except that g-C₃N₄ was not included.

3.3. Characterization of the Samples

The physical purity and crystal structure of the samples were examined using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD, Rigaku Ultima IV, Japan Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). The morphology of the samples was investigated with a scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM, NANOSEM 450, FEI Co., Ltd., Hillsboro, OR, USA). Additionally, the samples were characterized by TEM using a high-resolution electron microscope (HRTEM, H-7000FA, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). A UV–visible spectrophotometer (UV–Vis DRS, UV-2550, Shimadzu, Japan, Kyoto) was used to characterize the energy band structure. Photoluminescence spectra were measured using a fluorescence spectrophotometer (PL, Jasco FP-6500, Tokyo, Japan). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Axis Ultra) was used to collect data on the chemical composition and elemental valence of the sample surface. The samples’ photocurrent (PC) and electrochemical impedance (EIS) were measured using an electrochemical workstation (CHI660B). A photocatalytic device (ZQ-GHX-V, Zhenqiao, Shanghai, China) was used to test the photocatalytic performance.

3.4. Evaluation of Photocatalytic Performance and Stability

The photocatalytic activity of the samples was investigated through the application of a photocatalytic degradation process to rhodamine B. The samples (100 mg each) were dispersed in 50 mL of rhodamine B solution at a concentration of 4 mg·L⁻¹. The adsorption equilibrium was reached after 30 min of dark adsorption. Photocatalytic degradation experiments were conducted at room temperature utilizing a 500 W xenon lamp with a 420 nm filter as the light source.

Samples were collected every 10 min. The supernatant was then centrifuged, filtered, and its concentration was determined using spectrophotometry. The stability of the photocatalysts’ degradation cycle was investigated through cyclic photocatalytic experiments. The photocatalytic activity was examined for five consecutive degradation experiments under the same conditions.

3.5. Cavity and Radical Trapping Experiments

Major active species during photocatalytic reactions were identified by hole and radical trapping experiments. Isopropanol (IPA) was used as the hydroxyl radical (·OH) trapping agent; p-benzoquinone (BQ) was used as the superoxide anion radical ($\cdot {\mathrm{O}}_2^{-}$) trapping agent; and disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA-2Na) was used as the hole (h⁺) trapping agent. The relevant trapping agent (1 μmol·L⁻¹) was added during the photocatalytic degradation reaction of RhB under the same conditions as those used for the evaluation of photocatalytic activity to obtain curves of RhB concentration versus time. The main active species of the photocatalytic reaction was determined by comparing the activity changes before and after the addition of the trapping agent.

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, an Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ heterojunction photocatalyst was prepared via a simple calcination and hydrothermal synthesis method to efficiently degrade RhB. The heterojunction between g-C₃N₄ and Ag₃PO₄ significantly enhances the separation efficiency and transport speed of the photogenerated carriers. The synthesized Ag₃PO₄/g-C₃N₄ composite photocatalysts exhibited significantly enhanced activity in RhB decomposition under visible light irradiation. Capture experiments indicated that the degradation process was primarily influenced by $\cdot {\mathrm{O}}_2^{-}$ and ·OH, followed by H⁺. Finally, a possible Z-scheme degradation mechanism of organic pollutants by the Ag₃PO₄/gC₃N₄ composite photocatalyst is proposed based on the work function analysis and energy band theory. The composite photocatalyst exhibits high stability and reusability, making it a promising candidate for practical photocatalytic applications in industrial wastewater purification.