Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP)
3. Chagas’ Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)
4. Echinococcosis
5. Foodborne Trematodiases
6. Human African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness)
7. Leishmaniasis
8. Lymphatic Filariasis
9. Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)
10. Scabies
11. Schistosomiasis
12. Soil-Transmitted Helminthiases (Intestinal Worms)
13. Taeniasis/Cysticercosis
14. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BIP | backward inner primer |
CL | cutaneous leishmaniasis |
clp | cathepsin l-like cysteine peptidase |
cox1 | cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 |
CPB | cysteine protease B |
CSF | cerebrospinal fluid |
DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid |
DTUs | discrete typing units |
FIP | forward inner primer |
FTA | Flinders Technology Associates |
GBD | global burden of disease |
GPELF | global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis |
GST1a | glutathione s- transferase-1 |
HAT | human African trypanosomiasis |
IGS | ribosomal intergenic spacer |
IACR | International Agency of Cancer Research |
ITS | internal transcribed spacer |
ITS-1 | internal transcribed spacer 1 region |
ITS-2 | the second internal transcribed spacer region |
fg | femtogram |
kDNA | kinetoplast DNA minicircle sequence |
LAMP | loop-mediated isothermal amplification |
LB | loop backward |
LDR | long DNA repeat |
LF | loop forward |
MDA | mass drug administration |
MCL | mucocutaneous leishmaniasis |
nad1 | NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 |
nad5 | NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 |
NADH | nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen |
ND | not determined |
NINA | non-instrumented nucleic acid amplification |
NPI | neglected parasite infections |
NTD | neglected tropical disease |
NZD | neglected zoonotic disease |
ng | nanogram |
PCR | polymerase chain reaction |
PFR | paraflagellar rod |
pg | picogram |
RBC | red blood cell |
RIME | repetitive insertion mobile element |
rDNA | ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid |
rRNA | ribosomal ribonucleic acid |
SDS | Sodium dodecyl sulfate |
STH | soil-transmitted helminths |
SRA | human serum resistance-associated |
SGP | specific glycoprotein |
VL | visceral leishmaniasis |
WHA | World Health Assembly |
WHO | World Health Organisation |
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Parasite | Marker | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. cruzi | Satellite nuclear repeat region (231 bp) | Extracted DNA | CL Brener and DM28 strains | - | CL: 5 fg DM28: 50 fg | [33] |
T. cruzi | Repetitive satellite DNA sequence | Extracted, spiked and natural DNA | Reference strains belonging to the six Discrete Typing Units (DTUs) and human blood | 33 | Extracted DNA: ≥10−2 parasite equivalents/mL (0.3 fg) Spiked EDTA blood: 10−2 parasite equivalents/mL Spiked heparinised blood: 10−1 parasite equivalents/mL | [31] |
T. cruzi | 18 S rRNA | Spiked and natural DNA | Human blood | 27 | 50 parasites/mL | [34] |
T. cruzi | 18 S rRNA | Spiked/natural DNA | Tulahuen strain | - | 100 fg | [35] |
T. cruzi | 18 S rRNA | Spiked DNA | Tulahuen strain | - | 1 fg | [36] |
Parasite | Marker | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. cruzi | 18S rRNA | Spiked/natural DNA | Triatomine bugs | 52 | 100 fg | [35] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/spiked/natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
E. granulosus complex | cox1 | All of them | Protoscoleces/dog faeces/faeces collected from the environment | Dog faeces: 5 Faeces collected from the environment: 61 | 10–100 fg | [42] |
E. granulosus complex | nad1 | Natural DNA | Hydatid cysts containing protoscoleces and associated germinal layers | 100 | 10 fg | [41] |
E. granulosus complex | nad1 | Diluted protoscolex or egg lysate and natural DNA | Protoscolex or eggs | 60 | 1/50 of a single protoscolex or egg | [43] |
E. multilocularis | Mitochondrial nad5 | Extracted/ natural DNA | Protoscolex tissue/dog faeces | 189 | 1 pg | [44] |
E. granulosus | Mitochondrial nad5 | Extracted and natural DNA | Isolates and faecal samples from dogs | 190 | 10 pg | [45] |
E. granulosus | Repeat region sequence | Spiked DNA | Protoscoleces recovered from affected sheep livers | - | 1 pg/200 mg faeces | [46] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C. sinensis | cox1 | All of them | Human stool samples | 120 | 1 egg/100 mg of faeces | [61] |
F. hepatica | IGS | Spiked DNA | Samples collected from infected dog liver and faeces | - | 1 egg | [62] |
F. hepatica | ITS2 | Natural DNA | Sheep faeces | 15 | 10−3 ng | [63] |
F. hepatica | ITS2 | Natural DNA | Sheep and cattle faeces | Sheep:39 Cattle: 25 | 10−4 ng | [64] |
F. hepatica | IGS | Extracted DNA | Individual worms and eggs | Adults: 14 Eggs: 1 | 10−5 ng | [65] |
F. gigantica | ||||||
O. viverrini | Microsatellite 6 (OVMS6) | Extracted DNA | Adult worms | 1 ng | [66] | |
O. viverrini | nad1 | Natural DNA | Vietnamese isolate (OvBD1) and samples collected from humans | - | 10−3 –10−4 ng | [67] |
O. viverrini | ITS1 | Natural DNA | Adult worms from experimentally infected hamsters and children’s faeces | 37 | 10−3 ng | [68] |
P. westermani | Ty3/gypsy-like LTR retrotransposon (Rn1) | Natural DNA | Canine blood | 124 | 2.7 fg | [69] |
P. westermani (Oriental lung fluke) | ITS2 | Natural DNA | Adult worms from experimentally-infected dogs, eggs from patients’ sputum and pleural fluid | Samples from patients’ sputum and pleural fluid: 17 | 10−8 ng | [70] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C. sinensis | cox1 | All of them | Metacercariae from naturally-infected freshwater fish | - | 100 fg of DNA | [61] |
C. sinensis | ITS2 | Natural DNA | Freshwater snails, shrimp and freshwater fish | Snails: 497 Shrimp: 42 Freshwater fish: 33 | 10 fg (0.0002/snail) | [71] |
F. hepatica | IGS | Extracted DNA | Snails | Cercariae: 1 | 10−5 ng | [65] |
F. gigantica | ||||||
O. viverrini | nad1 | Natural DNA | samples collected from fish | - | 10−3–10−4 ng | [67] |
P. westermani (Oriental lung fluke) | ITS2 | Natural DNA | Metacercariae from freshwater crabs and crayfish | Muscle samples from infected freshwater crabs or crayfish: 35 | 10−8 ng | [70] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. brucei brucei | RIME | Spiked DNA | GVR35 strain | - | Blood treated with RBC lysis solution: 0.04 trypanosomes/mL | [22] |
T. brucei gambiense | 5.8S ribosomal RNA -ITS2 | Extracted DNA | T. brucei gambiense DAL 972 isolate | - | ≥1 fg | [11] |
T. brucei gambiense | TgSGP | Spiked and natural DNA | Human blood samples | - | ~1 pg (~10 trypanosomes/mL) | [77] |
T. congolense | 18S rRNA (CON2-LAMP) | Natural DNA | Cattle blood | 420 | ND | [78] |
T. viva xT. brucei rhodesiense | Satellite DNA | |||||
SRA | ||||||
T. congolense | 18S rRNA (CON2-LAMP) | Natural DNA | Cattle blood | 295 | ND | [79] |
T. vivax | Satellite DNA | |||||
T. brucei rhodesiense | SRA | |||||
T. brucei gambiense | TgSGP | Experimentally infected DNA | Saliva and urine from vervet monkeys | 6 | ND | [80] |
T. brucei gambiense | RIME | Natural DNA | Human blood | 181 | ND | [81] |
T. brucei gambiense | RIME | Natural DNA | Human blood | 253 | ND | [82] |
T. congolense | 18S rRNA (CON2-LAMP) | Natural DNA | Canine blood | 6 | ND | [83] |
T. viva xT. brucei rhodesiense | Satellite DNA | |||||
SRA | ||||||
T. brucei rhodesiense | RIME SRA | Natural DNA | Human blood and CSF | 4 | ND | [84] |
T. brucei rhodesiense | RIME Pseudo-SRA LAMP | Extracted DNA | T. b. rhodesiense IL1852 | - | 0.1 fg genomic DNA (0.001 parasite) | [23] |
RIME | Spiked DNA | Human blood and CSF | - | Blood: 10 trypanosome/mL CSF: 10 trypanosomes/mL | ||
Pseudo-SRA LAMP | Blood: 0.01 trypanosomes/mL CSF: 0.1 trypanosomes/mL | |||||
T. brucei | RIME | Extracted/natural DNA | T. b. rhodesiense isolate LVH 56, T. b. gambiense isolate NW2/human blood and CSF | - | 0.01 trypanosomes/mL | [85] |
T. brucei gambiense | TgSGP | Extracted DNA | Isolate PT41 DNA | - | 10 trypanosomes/mL | [86] |
Spiked/natural DNA | Mouse blood/human blood and CSF | 10 | ~1 trypanosomes/mL | |||
T. brucei rhodesiense | Pseudo-SRA LAMP RIME | Natural DNA | Human blood | 128 | ND | [87] |
Sub-genus Trypanozoon | RIME | Extracted and Natural DNA | Human blood and CSF | 20 | 0.001 trypanosomes/mL | [27] |
T. brucei rhodesiense | SRA | Experimentally infected/natural DNA | Mouse blood/human blood and CSF | Human sample:6 | Purified DNA: 10 trypanosomes/mL Heat-treated buffy coat: 0.1 pg (1 trypanosome/mL) a | [88] |
T. brucei group T. congolense | PFR protein A | Experimentally infected/ extracted DNA | Mouse blood T. congolense IL-3000 | - | T. brucei GUTat3.1: 1 pg T. congolense: 1 ng | [89] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. brucei | RIME-LAMP | Natural DNA | Tsetse flies | 150 | ND | [90] |
T. brucei gambiense | TgSGP | Spiked and natural DNA | Tsetse fly | - | ~1 pg (~10 trypanosomes/mL) | [77] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L. siamensis | 18S ribosomal RNA | Extracted/natural DNA | MON-324; MHOM/TH/2010/TR/human blood samples | 50 | 102 parasites/mL (0.0147 ng/μL) | [95] |
L. infantum | kDNA | Extracted DNA | MHOM/BR/2011/COS | - | 1 fg | [96] |
L. amazonensis | kDNA | Extracted/ experimentally infected DNA | MCAN/BR/2002/BH401 strain/skin samples from hamsters | - | 10 pg to 100 pg a | [97] |
L. infantum | K26 | Extracted/spiked/natural DNA | MHOM/BR/74/PP75 strains/human blood samples | 219 | 1 fg DNA 100 parasites/mL | [98] |
L. major | CPB | Natural DNA | Human tissue material | 81 | 20 fg | [99] |
L. tropica | 200 fg | |||||
Leishmania spp. | 18S rRNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Cutaneous leishmaniasis-causing strains and direct smears from CL patients’ skin lesions | 50 | 1 × 10−2 equivalent parasites | [100] |
Leishmania spp. | 18S rRNA | Natural DNA | Human skin biopsies | 2 | 1 parasites/μL | [101] |
Leishmania spp. | 18S ribosomal DNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Visceral leishmaniasis-causing strains and cutaneous leishmaniasis-causing strains/human blood samples and skin samples | CL: 105 VL:50 | 0.01 to 0.001 parasites/μL | [102] |
kDNA | 0.0001 parasites/μL b | |||||
Histone H3 gene | 0.01 parasites/μL c | |||||
L. donovani | kDNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. donovani AG83, L. major ASKH and L. tropica WR 683/VL: human peripheral blood or bone marrow aspirate d PKDL: tissue biopsy | VL: 66 from blood and 15 from bone marrow PKDL d: 67 | 1 fg | [103] |
L. tropica | 1 pg | |||||
L. major | 100 pg | |||||
L. martiniquensis | 18S rRNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. martiniquensis (MHOM/TH/2011/PG) | - | 0.13 parasites/μL | [104] |
Leishmania spp. | ITS-1 | Extracted/natural DNA | Reference strains/human blood samples | - | L. donovani: 0.1 pg L. major, L. aethiopica, L. tropica, L. infantum chagasi: 1 ng | [105] |
L. donovani | kDNA | Natural DNA | Human skin lesions | 31 | ND | [106] |
L. major | 18S ribosomal RNA | Parasite applied to FTA card/natural DNA | L. major (MHOM/SU/1973/5ASKH)/human tissue material | 122 | 0.01 parasites/µL | [107] |
L. infantum | kDNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. infantum (MCAN/CN/90/SC)/conjunctival dog swab | 111 | 1 fg | [108] |
L. siamensis | 18S ribosomal RNA | Spiked DNA | Human saliva and blood | - | 103 parasite/mL | [109] |
L. infantum | kDNA | Natural DNA | Human blood samples | 87 | 1 parasite/mL | [110] |
Leishmania spp. | 18S ribosomal RNA | Extracted/natural DNA | VL and CL reference strains | - | 0.01 parasites | [15] |
L. major | 18S ribosomal DNA | Spiked/natural DNA | Mouse blood/swab samples | 41 | 1 × 103 parasites/mL | [111] |
L. major | 18S rRNA | Extracted DNA | L. donovani (MHOM/IN/1996/THAK35), L. infantum L4, L. major 230/119, L. major 159/06 and L. major LV39 | - | 1.6–160 fg e | [112] |
L. tropica | 80 fg–3.6 pg e | |||||
L. infantum | 46 fg–46.2 pg e | |||||
L. donovani | 30 pg | |||||
L. infantum | CPB | Extracted/natural DNA | L. infantum (MHOM/TN/80/IPT1)/canine blood samples | 75 | 50 fg | [113] |
L. donovani | kDNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. donovani AG83 (MHOM/IN/83/AG83)/human blood and bone marrow samples | 117 | 1 fg (0.01 parasites) | [114] |
L. donovani | kDNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. donovani (MHOM/IN/80/DD8)/human blood | 185 | 1 fg | [115] |
Leishmania spp. | 18S ribosomal RNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. donovani (MHOM/SD/68/IS)/human blood and skin biopsies | Blood: 30 biopsies: 17 | 10–100 parasites/mL | [116] |
L. donovani | kDNA | Extracted/natural DNA | L. donovani strain DD8/human blood samples | 10 | 1 fg | [117] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leishmania spp. | 18S rRNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Sand flies | 50 | 1 × 10−2 equivalent parasites | [100] |
L. martiniquensis | 18S rRNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Sand flies | Sand flies: 380 | 0.13 parasites/µL or 10 promastigotes in one sand fly | [104] |
L. major | 18S rRNA | Natural DNA | Sand flies | - | 101–106 Promastigotes/100 μL–0.1 parasites | [118] |
Leishmania spp. | 18S ribosomal RNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Sand flies | 397 | 0.01 parasites | [15] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B. malayi | Hha I repeat (BmHha I) | Natural DNA | Human blood samples | 8 | 1/100th of microfilaria (1 pg) | [126] |
W. bancrofti | WbLDR | 1/5000th of microfilaria | ||||
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Human blood samples | Blood: 3067 | ND | [127] |
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Human blood samples | Blood: 3067 | ND | [128] |
B. malayi or B. timori | Hha I repeat | Extracted/natural DNA | Feline blood samples | 1 | 0.001 ng | [129] |
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Extracted/spiked DNA | Human blood | - | 1/1000th of microfilaria | [130] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Mosquitoes | 15,568 | ND | [125] |
B. malayi | Hha I repeat (BmHha I) | Natural DNA | Infected mosquitos | 8 | 1/100th of microfilaria (1 pg) | [126] |
W. bancrofti | WbLDR | 1/5000th of microfilaria | ||||
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Mosquitoes | Mosquitoes:14,334 | ND | [131] |
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Mosquitoes | Mosquitoes:1,260 | ND | [127] |
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Natural DNA | Mosquitoes | Mosquitoes:16,073 | ND | [128] |
W. bancrofti | Nuclear scaffold/matrix attachment region | Extracted/spiked DNA | Mosquitoes | - | 1/1000th of microfilaria | [130] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O. volvulus | Mitochondrial cox1 | Extracted/natural DNA | Skin biopsies | 150 | ND | [135] |
O. volvulus | O-150 | Extracted/natural DNA | Skin snips | 70 | 0.0001 ng | [136] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O. volvulus | GST1a | Extracted DNA/Experimentally infected DNA | Black flies | 4 | 0.01 ng | [126] |
O. volvulus | GST1a | Extracted/spiked DNA | Black flies | - | 0.01 ng | [137] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. scabiei | ITS-2 | Extracted/natural DNA | Mite/animal skin scrapings | 64 | Single mite DNA: 0.02 ng Skin scraping: 0.008 ng | [141] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. mansoni S. intercalatum S. haematobium S. bovis | ITS-1 | Extracted DNA | Adult worms | - | S. mansoni and S. intercalatum: 1 pg S. haematobium: 0.1 pg S. bovis: 10 pg | [149] |
S. mansoni | Mitochondrial minisatellite DNA region | Extracted/natural DNA | Cutaneous and hepatic biopsies and appendix biopsy | 3 | ND | [150] |
S. mansoni | Sm1-7 repeat fragment | Natural DNA | Human urine and stool | 111 | ND | [151] |
S. mansoni | Mitochondrial minisatellite DNA region | Spiked/natural DNA | Human urine | 28 | 0.01 fg | [152] |
S. haematobium | IGS | Natural DNA | Human urine | 172 | ND | [153] |
S. mansoni | Sm1- 7 repeat fragment | Extracted/natural DNA | Human faeces | 383 | 32 fg | [154] |
S. mansoni | Mitochondrial minisatellite DNA region | Natural DNA | Human faeces | 427 | ND | [155] |
S. haematobium is | IGS | Spiked/natural DNA | Egyptian strain, NR-31682/human urine samples | 94 | 1 fg | [156] |
S. japonicum | Retrotransposon SjR2 | Natural DNA | Human serum | 110 | ND | [157] |
S. mansoni | Mitochondrial minisatellite DNA | Experimentally infected DNA | Mice faeces | - | 1 fg | [158] |
S. japonicum | Highly repetitive retrotransposon (SjR2) | Natural DNA | Rabbit faeces | 6 | 0.08 fg | [159] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. japonicum | 28S ribosomal (Sj28S) gene | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 4006 a | 1/50 | [160] |
S. mansoni | Mitochondrial minisatellite DNA region | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 1175 b | ND | [155] |
S. mansoni | ITS | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | Individually: 11 Pools: 8 | 70 fg | [161] |
S. mansoni | IGS 28S-18S ribosomal RNA | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 41 | 1 fg | [162] |
S. haematobium is | Dral repeat fragment | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 103 | 0.1 fg | [163] |
S. mansoni | Sm1-7 repeat fragment | |||||
S. haematobium is | Dral repeat fragment | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 11 | 0.1 fg | [164] |
S. mansoni | Sm1-7 repeat fragment | |||||
S. japonicum | 28S rDNA gene | Natural DNA | Snail soft tissues | 362 | 100 fg | [165] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. trichiura | ITS-2 | Natural DNA | Human faeces | 137 | 98.6 × 10−9 ng/μL or a single egg | [172] |
Strongyloides spp. | 18S rRNA | Natural DNA | Human urine | 24 | ND | [173] |
A. lumbricoides | β-tubulin isotype 1 | Extracted/natural/spiked DNA | Human faeces | 21 | 1 pg or a single egg | [174] |
T. trichiura | 15 | |||||
N. americanus | 19 | |||||
Strongyloides spp. | 18S rRNA | Extracted/natural DNA | Rat faeces and urine Human faeces | 12 | 10−3 ng | [175] |
A. lumbricoides | ITS-1 | Natural DNA | Human faeces | 581 | 10.8 ng (equivalent to a single egg) | [176] |
N. americanus | ITS-2 | Natural DNA | Human faeces | 106 | 0.4 fg | [177] |
Parasite | Gene | Extracted/Spiked/Natural DNA | Sample | Sample Size | Sensitivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. solium | cox1 | Extracted/natural DNA | Human faeces | 102 | 1 copy of target gene | [182] |
T. solium | cox1 | Natural DNA | Tapeworms | 51 | ND | [183] |
T. solium | cox1 and clp | Natural DNA | Human faeces | 36 | ND | [184] |
T. solium | cox1 and clp | Extracted DNA | Proglottids and cysticerci | 168 | 1 copy of target gene | [185] |
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Avendaño, C.; Patarroyo, M.A. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 7981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217981
Avendaño C, Patarroyo MA. Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):7981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217981
Chicago/Turabian StyleAvendaño, Catalina, and Manuel Alfonso Patarroyo. 2020. "Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification as Point-of-Care Diagnosis for Neglected Parasitic Infections" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 7981. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21217981