Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Origins of Body Odor Associated with Bacterial Metabolites
- Diet. Diet contains direct or indirect odorants (i.e., substrates for the production of odorants by bacteria).
- Composition and metabolic activity of bacteria in the gut, skin or mucosa. The production of specific odorant is often limited to specific genera or strains of bacteria.
- Gut function. Intestinal transit time and gut-blood barrier permeability affect penetration of bacterial metabolites and their precursors from the gut lumen to the bloodstream. Recently the concept of a leaky-gut has attracted a lot of attention, as several studies show that numerous diseases may affect intestinal barrier function and increase the penetration of bacterial metabolites to the circulation.
- Liver function. Liver metabolizes most of gut-derived bacterial metabolites, reducing the “odorant potential” of the metabolites (e.g., very odorant trimethylamine is transformed to almost neutral trimethylamine oxide; hydrogen sulfide is transformed to numerous sulfur compounds, etc.).
- Kidney function. Kidney excretion is crucial for the elimination of both bacterial metabolites and substrates for their production from blood.
3. Breath and Saliva
3.1. H2S–Smell of Rotten Eggs
3.2. Methanethiol (CH3SH/MT/MeSH) = Methyl Mercaptan–Putrid, Musty Smell
3.3. Other Volatile Sulfur Compounds (VSCs)–Sweet, Musty Smell of Cooked Onion
3.4. Trimethylamine–Fishy Smell
3.5. Indole and Skatole–Smell of Feces
3.6. Putrescine and Cadaverine–Smell of Rotten Meat or Fish
3.7. Acetone–Fruity Smell
3.8. Pyridine–Fishy, Sweaty Smell
3.9. Ammonia–Urine-Like Smell
4. Urine
4.1. H2S–Smell of Rotten Eggs
4.2. Methanethiol–Putrid, Musty Smell
4.3. Trimethylamine–Fishy Smell
4.4. Short Chain Fatty Acids–Cheesy Smell
4.5. Ammonia–Urine-Like Smell
4.6. Methionine and its Metabolites–Smell of Rancid Butter or Boiled Cabbage
4.7. Phenylacetate–Musty, Mousy Smell
4.8. Branched-Chain Amino Acids (Leucine, Isoleucine and Valine) and their Ketoacids–Smell of Caramelized Sugar or Maple Syrup
4.9. 3-Hydroxyisovaleric Acid–Smell of Male Cat Urine
4.10. Aldehydes (Acetaldehyde, Butylaldehyde, Isovaleraldehyde)–Urine-Like Smell
5. Sweat and Skin
5.1. (E)-3-Methyl-2-Hexenoic acid (E3M2H), (R)/(S)-3-Hydroxy-3-Methylhexanoic Acid ((R)/(S)-HMHA) and 3-Methyl-3-Sulfanylhexan-1-ol ((R)/(S)-MSH)–Rancid, Cheesy Smell of Sweat
5.2. Trimethylamine–Fishy Smell
5.3. Ammonia–Urine-Like Smell
5.4. Methionine and its Metabolites–Smell of Rancid Butter or Boiled Cabbage
5.5. 2-Nonenal–Greasy, Grassy Smell
6. Reproductive Fluids
7. Management
- Reduction of dietary substrates for odorant production.
- Frequent bowel movements to reduce passage time (to shorten time of gut bacterial metabolism and time of absorption of bacterial metabolites), treatment of constipation.
- Probiotic and prebiotic treatment (an attempt to modify gut bacterial composition).
- Increased water intake in order to increase excretion of metabolites with urine.
7.1. Hydrogen Sulfide
7.2. Methanethiol
7.3. Trimethylamine
7.4. Indole and Skatole
7.5. Putrescine and Cadaverine
7.6. Pyridine
7.7. Ammonia
7.8. (E)-3-Methyl-2-Hexenoic Acid (E3M2H), (R)/(S)-3-Hydroxy-3-Methylhexanoic Acid ((R)/(S)-HMHA) and 3-Methyl-3-Sulfanylhexan-1-ol ((R)/(S)-MSH)
8. Conclusions
9. Materials and Methods
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Substance | Smell | Body Site | References |
---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen sulfide | Rotten eggs | Breath, Saliva, Flatus, Urine | [18,19,44,45] |
Other volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs): ethanethiol, S-ethyl thioacetate, diethyl disulfide, dimethylsufide | Cooked onion or vegetables, ocean; musty, unpleasantly sweet smell | Breath, Saliva | [20,23,26] |
Methanethiol | Putrid, barnyard; musty smell | Breath, Saliva, Flatus, Urine | [20,26,46,47,48] |
Trimethylamine | Rotten fish | Breath, Urine, Sweat | [38,49,50,51,52,53] |
Indole, Skatole | Fecal matter | Breath, Saliva | [28,30] |
Short chain fatty acids (butyric, propionic, acetic, isovaleric, isocaproic acid) | Human vomit, sweat, goat-like, sweaty feet odor; cheesy smell | Sweat, Urine, Vaginal discharge | [54,55,56] |
Putrescine, Cadaverine | Rotten meat, spoiled fish | Breath, Saliva, Vaginal fluid (in bacterial vaginosis) | [32,57,58,59] |
Acetone | Acetone, fruity smell of rotten apple | Breath | [60,61,62] |
Pyridine | Fishy odor | Breath, Saliva | [63,64] |
(E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid (E3M2H) | Peculiar pungent odor | Sweat | [65,66,67] |
3-methyl-3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol ((R)/(S)-MSH) | Tropical fruit or grapefruit (enantiomer R), onion, clary sage, chicken-sulfury (enantiomer S) | Sweat | [65] |
(R)/(S)-3-hydroxy-3-methylhexanoic acid ((R)/(S)-HMHA | Cheesy, rancid odor | Sweat | [68,69,70] |
Ammonia | Urine-like, ammoniacal, fetid | Breath, Saliva, Urine, Stool, Sweat | [34,71,72,73,74,75] |
Methionine (transformed into dimethylsulfide) | Boiled cabbage, rancid butter, oast house, rotten mushrooms | Breath, Sweat, Urine | [11,12,76] |
Phenylacetate | Musty, mousy, sweaty | Urine, Infant skin | [77] |
Branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine and valine) | Maple syrup, caramelized/burnt sugar, fenugreek, curry | Urine, Ear wax | [78,79] |
3-hydroxyisovaleric acid | Male cat urine | Urine | [80,81] |
Aldehydes (2-nonenal) | Foul, urine-like | Urine, Skin | [82,83,84] |
Condition | Smell | Body Site | References |
---|---|---|---|
Intra-oral halitosis | Rotten eggs, cooked onion or vegetables, putrid, musty, urine-like smell, fecal matter, rotten meat or fish | Breath, Saliva | [8,21,27,32,85] |
Trimethylaminuria | Rotten fish | Breath, Urine, Sweat | [39,49,86,87,88] |
Phenylketonuria | Musty, mousy, sweaty smell | Urine, Infant skin | [77,86,89] |
Maple syrup urine disease | Maple syrup, caramelized/burnt sugar, fenugreek, curry | Urine, Ear wax | [78,79,86,90] |
Diabetic ketoacidosis | Acetone, fruity smell of rotten apple | Breath | [9,10,62] |
End-stage renal disease | Urine-like smell, ammoniacal, rotten fish | Breath | [35,91,92] |
Liver failure | Urine-like smell, ammoniacal, rotten fish | Breath | [38,93,94] |
Urinary incontinence | Rotten eggs, putrid, musty, urine-like smell | Urine | [72,82,95] |
Methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT) I/III deficiency | Putrid, musty, smell of rancid butter or boiled cabbage | Breath, Urine, Sweat, Skin | [11,12,13,96] |
Isovaleric acidemia | Human vomit, sweat, goat-like, sweaty feet odor; cheesy smell | Sweat, Urine | [54,55,86,97] |
3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (3-MCC) deficiency | Smell of male cat urine | Urine | [80,81] |
Bromhidrosis | Rancid, cheesy smell of sweat | Sweat, Skin | [65,66,67,68,69,70,98] |
Aging | Greasy, grassy smell | Sweat, Skin | [84,99] |
Bacterial vaginosis | Fishy smell | Vaginal discharge | [59] |
Gynecological lesions | Rotting smell | Vaginal discharge | [56] |
Bacterial Odorant | Conditions | Management | References |
---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen sulfide | Intra-oral halitosis (periodontic disease, excessive tongue coating), UI and UTIs | Basic dental hygiene, treatment of periodontal disease, mouthwashes with chlorine dioxide or Zn2+ ions; avoidance of sulfites and sulfides in diet | [5,101,102,103,147,148] |
Methanethiol | Intra-oral halitosis (periodontic disease, excessive tongue coating), treatment with cysteamine, hepatic methionine adenosyltransferase deficiency, UI | Basic dental hygiene, treatment of periodontal disease, avoidance of asparagus in diet | [19,23,48] |
Trimethylamine | Trimethylaminuria, bacterial vaginosis, liver failure, ESRD | Avoidance of products containing choline, betaine, l-carnitine or TMAO in diet; administration of probiotics and activated charcoal; use of low pH soaps and deodorants | [88,149,150,151,152,153] |
Indole, Skatole | Intra-oral halitosis | Decreasing tryptophan intake to allowed minimum; treatment of periodontal disease | [28,154,155] |
Putrescine, Cadaverine | Intra-oral halitosis, bacterial vaginosis, gynecological lesions | Basic dental hygiene, antibiotics for bacterial vaginosis, treatment of underlying gynecological problems | [121] |
Pyridine | Intra-oral halitosis (periodontic disease) | Basic dental hygiene, treatment of periodontal disease | [33] |
Ammonia | Intra-oral halitosis (periodontic disease, excessive tongue coating), extra-oral halitosis, liver failure, ESRD, UI, bromhidrosis | Avoidance of high-protein diets; l-Ornithine l-Aspartate, rifaximin, lactulose; basic dental hygiene, treatment of periodontal disease | [71,129,133,157] |
E3M2H, (R)/(S)-HMHA, R)/(S)-MSH | Bromhidrosis | Personal hygiene with the use of antiperspirants and topical antibacterial agents; avoidance of garlic, onion, alcohol and curry in diet; subdermal coagulation, surgical methods, BTX-A | [139,158,159,160,161,162,163] |
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Mogilnicka, I.; Bogucki, P.; Ufnal, M. Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 2886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082886
Mogilnicka I, Bogucki P, Ufnal M. Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(8):2886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082886
Chicago/Turabian StyleMogilnicka, Izabella, Pawel Bogucki, and Marcin Ufnal. 2020. "Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 8: 2886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082886
APA StyleMogilnicka, I., Bogucki, P., & Ufnal, M. (2020). Microbiota and Malodor—Etiology and Management. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(8), 2886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082886