One-Pot Process: Microwave-Assisted Keratin Extraction and Direct Electrospinning to Obtain Keratin-Based Bioplastic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Keratin Extraction and Characterization
2.2. Mechanical, Barrier and Morphology Properties of Keratin-Based Materials
2.3. Physical-Chemical Properties of Keratin-Based Materials
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Discussion
Extraction Method | Extraction Conditions | Yields |
---|---|---|
Alkaline/MAE [44] | NaOH 0.5M 800W Solid: liquid (w/w) = 1:50 Temperature (°C) = n.r Time = 10 min | Thiol = 24.72 mM Protein (Folin Ciocalteau) = 26.74 mg/mL Amino Acid (Ninhydrin Assay) = 69.4 mg/g Molecular Weight = n.r |
Reductive [14] | Na2S (500mM) Solid: liquid (w/w) = 1:40 Temperature (°C) = 50 Time = 6 h | Keratin yield % = Extracted keratin/feathers (w/w) = 80% Protein (Bradford assay) = 1.6 mg/mL Molecular Weight = n.r |
Sulphitolysis [28] | Urea 8M; Na2S2O5 0.2M; SDS/feathers 0.6; NaOH up to pH 6.5 Solid: liquid (w/w) = 1:36 Temperature (°C) = 65 Time = 5 h | Keratin yield % = (Feathers-unconverted feathers)/(feathers) = 87.6% Molecular Weight (SDS-PAGE) = 11–20, 32, 37, 50, 75 kDa |
Enzymatic and microbial [17] | Keratinases-Bacillus subtilitis pH 8 Temperature (°C) = 28 Time = 5 days | Protein (Lowry method) = 95% Molecular Weight (MALDI-TOF) = 0.8–1.1 kDa |
Ionic liquid [19] | [Bmim][Cl]+10%Na2SO3 Solid: liquid (w/w) = 1:20 Temperature (°C) = 90 Time = 1 h | Keratin yield % = Extracted keratin/feathers (w/w) = 75.1% Protein (hydrolysis HCl-sum amino acids) = 72% Molecular Weight (GPC) = 8.83–9.74 kDa |
Acid [45] | H2O-H2SO4 1:1 Temperature: 50 °C pH: 4–5 Time: 12 h Recrystallization in EtOH/H2O) with microwaves or ultrasounds | Not reported |
Acid/MAE (This work) | Acetic acid 70% v/v 90 W Solid: liquid (w/w) = 1:75 Temperature (°C) = 104.6 Time = 5 h | Converted feathers % = (Feathers-unconverted feathers)/Feathers = 38 ± 5% NSK = 12 ± 2% - TSK = 26 ± 1% Amino acids = 0.94 ± 0.02 mg/mL, SK<1200 = 0.80 ± 0.03 mg/mL SK1200–7000 = 0.87 ± 0.02 mg/mL, SK>7000 = 0.49 ± 0.04 mg/mL Molecular Weight (SDS-PAGE) = 5–10 kDa |
4. Materials and Methods
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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MAE | CH | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time (h) | Solvent/Feathers | Converted Feathers (% w/w) | NSK (% w/w) | TSK (% w/w) | Time (h) | Solvent/Feathers | Converted Feathers (% w/w) | NSK (% w/w) | TSK (% w/w) |
2 | 75:1 | 30 ± 4 | 18 ± 3 | 13 ± 2 | 2 | 75:1 | 29 ± 2 | 16 ± 1 | 12 ± 2 |
5 | 75:1 | 38 ± 5 | 12 ± 2 | 26 ± 1 | 5 | 75:1 | 52 ± 3 | 31 ± 2 | 25 ± 1 |
2 | 150:1 | 39 ± 1 | 26 ± 2 | 12 ± 2 | 5 | 150:1 | 50 ± 1 | 27 ± 2 | 26 ± 2 |
Time (h) | TSK (mg/mL) | Amino Acids (mg/mL) | SK<1200 * (mg/mL) | SK1200–7000 * (mg/mL) | SK>7000 * (mg/mL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2h-MAE | 1.6 ± 0.2 | 0.74 ± 0.09 | 0.45 ± 0.02 | 0.27 ± 0.03 | 0.14 ± 0.02 |
5h-MAE | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 0.94 ± 0.02 | 0.80 ± 0.03 | 0.87 ± 0.02 | 0.49 ± 0.04 |
2h-CH | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | 0.40 ± 0.05 | 0.20 ± 0.04 | 0.20 ± 0.05 |
5h-CH | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 1.13 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.04 | 0.68 ± 0.02 | 0.41 ± 0.01 |
Keratin/Gelatin Bioplastic | Uniaxial Tensile Test | Water Permeability Test | SEM | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
σmax (MPa) | εmax (%) | E (MPa) | U (kJ·m−3) | K Darcy (10−15·m2) | Fiber Diameter (nm) | |
G10GPTMS3 | 0.8 ± 0.5 | 6.8 ± 1.6 | 24 ± 3 | 77 ± 58 | 22 ± 2 | 76 ± 26 |
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS3 | 1.9 ± 0.4 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 160 ± 7 | 46 ± 22 | 2.0 ± 0.4 | 85 ± 33 |
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS3 | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 4.5 ± 1.1 | 116 ± 43 | 60 ± 31 | 7.5 ± 1.0 | 86 ± 25 |
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS3 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 1.9 ± 1.2 | 106 ± 4 | 7 ± 5 | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 72 ± 26 |
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS3 | 1.4 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 176 ± 37 | 26 ± 9 | 3.4 ± 0.3 | 79 ± 24 |
G10GPTMS6 | 1.7 ± 0.6 | 4.8 ± 1.4 | 34 ± 5 | 32 ± 14 | 17 ± 6 | 125 ± 53 |
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS6 | 2.0 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.3 | 230 ± 74 | 16 ± 5 | 0.65 ± 0.03 | 126 ± 59 |
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS6 | 1.3 ± 0.8 | 1.5 ± 0.8 | 176 ± 72 | 17 ± 13 | 8.8 ± 1.3 | 161 ± 69 |
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS6 | 1.0 ± 0.4 | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 146 ± 54 | 13 ± 10 | 6.4 ± 0.7 | 114 ± 40 |
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS6 | 0.7 ± 0.1 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 89 ± 5 | 6 ± 2 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | 149 ± 59 |
Gelatin/Keratin Bioplastic | TGA | DSC | IR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tonset (°C) | Degradation Step Temperature (°C)/ Weight Loss % w/w | Residue (900 °C) | Tg (°C) | AII/AI | δ1447/δÄ1400 | |||
1 | 2 | 3 | ||||||
G10GPTMS3 | 278 | 44 | 331 | 439 | 19% | 89.6 | 0.642 ± 0.013 | 1.652 ± 0.083 |
(11%) | (48%) | (22%) | ||||||
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS3 | 264 | 51 | 330 | 422 | 16% | 74.3 | 0.638 ± 0.013 | 1.736 ± 0.087 |
(8%) | (51%) | (25%) | ||||||
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS3 | 262 | 51 | 328 | 423 | 17% | 95.4 | 0.628 ± 0.013 | 1.678 ± 0.084 |
(6%) | (53%) | (24%) | ||||||
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS3 | 260 | 44 | 327 | 425 | 16% | 73.3 | 0.651 ± 0.013 | 1.650 ± 0.082 |
(8%) | (51%) | (23%) | ||||||
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS3 | 266 | 53 | 329 | 429 | 16% | 88.1 | 0.630 ± 0.013 | 1.667 ± 0.083 |
(8%) | (50%) | (25%) | ||||||
G10GPTMS6 | 281 | 39 | 330 | 406 | 23% | 87.9 | 0.613 ± 0.012 | 1.661 ± 0.083 |
(7%) | (41%) | (29%) | ||||||
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS6 | 269 | 44 | 329 | 416 | 20% | 86.8 | 0.622 ± 0.012 | 1.632 ± 0.082 |
(4%) | (47%) | (28%) | ||||||
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS6 | 276 | 51 | 328 | 423 | 20% | 103.7 | 0.615 ± 0.012 | 1.651 ± 0.083 |
(5%) | (47%) | (28%) | ||||||
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS6 | 273 | 50 | 331 | 427 | 20% | 83.9 | 0.620 ± 0.012 | 1.672 ± 0.084 |
(4%) | (48%) | (28%) | ||||||
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS6 | 274 | 50 | 328 | 424 | 20% | 84.5 | 0.619 ± 0.012 | 1.620 ± 0.081 |
Sample 1 | Gelatin (% w/v) | Keratin (% w/v) 2 | Extraction Time (h) | Heating Mode | GPTMS (% v/v) | Acetic Acid (% v/v) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
G10GPTMS3 | 10 | 0 | / | / | 3 | 90 |
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS3 | 10 | 0.08 | 2 | MAE | 3 | 80 |
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS3 | 10 | 0.16 | 5 | MAE | 3 | 80 |
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS3 | 10 | 0.08 | 2 | CH | 3 | 80 |
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS3 | 10 | 0.16 | 5 | CH | 3 | 80 |
G10GPTMS6 | 10 | 0 | / | / | 6 | 90 |
G10K0.08(2hMAE)GPTMS6 | 10 | 0.08 | 2 | MAE | 6 | 80 |
G10K0.16(5hMAE)GPTMS6 | 10 | 0.16 | 5 | MAE | 6 | 80 |
G10K0.08(2hCH)GPTMS6 | 10 | 0.08 | 2 | CH | 6 | 80 |
G10K0.16(5hCH)GPTMS6 | 10 | 0.16 | 5 | CH | 6 | 80 |
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Pulidori, E.; Micalizzi, S.; Bramanti, E.; Bernazzani, L.; Duce, C.; De Maria, C.; Montemurro, F.; Pelosi, C.; De Acutis, A.; Vozzi, G.; et al. One-Pot Process: Microwave-Assisted Keratin Extraction and Direct Electrospinning to Obtain Keratin-Based Bioplastic. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 9597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179597
Pulidori E, Micalizzi S, Bramanti E, Bernazzani L, Duce C, De Maria C, Montemurro F, Pelosi C, De Acutis A, Vozzi G, et al. One-Pot Process: Microwave-Assisted Keratin Extraction and Direct Electrospinning to Obtain Keratin-Based Bioplastic. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(17):9597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179597
Chicago/Turabian StylePulidori, Elena, Simone Micalizzi, Emilia Bramanti, Luca Bernazzani, Celia Duce, Carmelo De Maria, Francesca Montemurro, Chiara Pelosi, Aurora De Acutis, Giovanni Vozzi, and et al. 2021. "One-Pot Process: Microwave-Assisted Keratin Extraction and Direct Electrospinning to Obtain Keratin-Based Bioplastic" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 17: 9597. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179597