Cytoskeleton Reorganization in EndMT—The Role in Cancer and Fibrotic Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Endothelial–Mesenchymal Transition
EndMT Inductor | Receptors | Molecular Pathways | Refereces |
---|---|---|---|
TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3 | TGFBR1, TGFBR2 | Smad-dependent pathways (Smad2, Smad3, and Smad4) | [27,28] |
TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3 | TGFBR1, TGFBR2 | Smad-independent pathways include the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family of serine/threonine-specific protein kinases, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), RhoA, Rac, c-Abl, and protein kinase C (PKC)-δ. MAPK pathways: extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 MAPK, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases (JNK). | [33,34,35,36] |
Notch | NOTCHR | Notch and TGF-β synergistically stimulate Snail expression | [31] |
Notch | NOTCHIR | GSKβ inhibiton, calcium ions upregulation | [33] |
Wnt | Frizzed | Smad-dependent pathways (Smad2, Smad3, and Smad4) | [30] |
Wnt | Frizzed | GSKβ inhibiton | [30] |
HIF-1 | Neprilysin downregulation induces upregulation of PDGF-β and finally TGF-β1 signaling induction (hypoxia) | [38] | |
ROS | TGFBR1, TGFBR2 | TGF-β expression resulted in ROS production in the positive loop | [39] |
ROS | Induction of NF-κB signaling that, with TGF-β pathway, stimulated EndmT | [39] | |
NOX4 | ROS production caused TGF-β pathway induction | [40] | |
Shear stress | High shear stress via ERK5 inhibits EndMT | [41] | |
Shear stress | Cyclic strain, caused by a perpendicular stretching force on the vessel wall, has been shown to potentiate EndMT by augmenting both TGF-β and Wnt signaling | [42,43] | |
High glucose | ERK1/2 phosphorylation | [44] |
3. Cytoskeleton in Endothelial–Mesenchymal Transition
3.1. Microfilaments
3.2. Microtubules
3.3. Intermediate Filaments
4. EndMT Inhibition in Fibrosis and Cancer Treatment
4.1. Tubulin Inhibitors
4.1.1. Tubulin Polymerization Inhibitors
4.1.2. Tubulin Depolymerization Inhibitors
4.2. Vimentin Inhibitors
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Ciszewski, W.M.; Wawro, M.E.; Sacewicz-Hofman, I.; Sobierajska, K. Cytoskeleton Reorganization in EndMT—The Role in Cancer and Fibrotic Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 11607. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111607
Ciszewski WM, Wawro ME, Sacewicz-Hofman I, Sobierajska K. Cytoskeleton Reorganization in EndMT—The Role in Cancer and Fibrotic Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(21):11607. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111607
Chicago/Turabian StyleCiszewski, Wojciech Michał, Marta Ewelina Wawro, Izabela Sacewicz-Hofman, and Katarzyna Sobierajska. 2021. "Cytoskeleton Reorganization in EndMT—The Role in Cancer and Fibrotic Diseases" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 21: 11607. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111607