Can SARS-CoV-2 Virus Use Multiple Receptors to Enter Host Cells?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Non-Immune Receptors Involved in Coronavirus Disease 2019
2.1. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2
2.2. Glucose-Regulated Protein 78
2.3. Ezrin
3. Toll-Like Receptors Participating in Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pathogenesis and Progression
3.1. Introduction to Toll-Like Receptors
3.2. TLR1/2/6 as Potential Therapeutic Targets and Alternative Viral Entry Points for SARS-CoV-2
3.3. TLR3 as a Potential Therapeutic Target in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.4. TLR4 as a Potential Therapeutic Target and Alternative Viral Entry Point in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
3.5. TLR 5 as a Potential Vaccine Target in Coronavirus 2019
3.6. TLR7/8 as Potential Therapeutic Targets for SARS-CoV-2 Infection
4. C-Lectin Type Receptors Involved in COVID-19
4.1. Introduction to the C-Lectin Type Receptors
4.2. Blood Dendritic Cell Antigen-2
4.3. C-Type Lectin-Like Receptor 2
4.4. Dendritic Cell-Associated C-Type Lectin-1
4.5. Dendritic Cell-Associated C-Type Lectin-2
4.6. Dendritic Cell Immunoreceptor
4.7. Dendritic Cell Natural Killer Lectin Group Receptor-1
4.8. Dendritic Cell-Specific Intracellular Adhesion Molecule-3-Grabbing Non-Integrins and Homologue Dendritic Cell-Specific Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-3-Grabbing Nonintegrin Related
4.9. Lectin-Like Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-1
4.10. Liver and Lymph Node Sinusoidal Endothelial Cell C-Type Lectin
4.11. Macrophage Galactose Type C-Type Lectin
4.12. Mannose Receptor
5. Other Immune Receptors That May Participate in SARS-CoV-2 Infection
5.1. Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4
5.2. Neuropilin-1
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ACE2 | Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 |
Angiotensin II | AngII |
AngII receptor blocker | ARB |
aPL | Antiphosphilipid antibody |
BDCA-2 | Blood dendritic cell antigen-2 |
CRD | Carbohydrate recognition domain |
CLR | C-lectin type receptors |
COVID-19 | Coronavirus disease 2019 |
CLEC2 | C-type lectin-like receptor 2 |
CVD | Cardiovascular disease |
DAMP | Danger associated molecular patterns |
DC | Dendritic cell |
DCIR | Dendritic cell immunoreceptor |
DC-SIGN | Dendritic cell-specific intracellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin |
Dectin-1 | Dendritic cell-associated C-type lectin-1 |
Dectin-2 | Dendritic cell-associated C-type lectin-2 |
DPP4 | Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 |
EPOV GP | Ebola virus G protein |
GRP78 | Glucose regulated protein 78 |
HIV-1 | Human immunodeficiency virus-1 |
LSECtin | Liver/lymph node sinusoidal endothelial cell C-type lectin |
L-SIGN | Liver/lymph node-SIGN |
LOX-1 | Lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 |
MGL | Macrophage galactose-type lectin |
DIZE | Diminazene aceturate |
MR | Mannose receptor |
Myd88 | Myeloid differentiation protein 88 |
NF-kB | Nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells |
PAMP | Pathogen-associated molecular pattern |
Poly(I:C) | Polyinosoinic-polycytidylic acid |
PRR | Pattern recognition receptors |
S | Spike protein |
SARS-CoV-2 | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 |
Subunit 1 | S1 |
Subunit 2 | S2 |
TLR | Toll-like receptor |
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Receptor | Mechanism of Action | Reference |
---|---|---|
ACE2 | S protein receptor binding motif binds to the N-terminal extracellular catalytic ectodomain of ACE2 | [25] |
DC-SIGN | Receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 S protein | [35] |
GRP78 | III and IV cyclic regions of S protein | [36] |
L-SIGN | Receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 S protein | [35] |
MGL | N- and O-glycans present on the S1 of the S protein | [35] |
MR | Mannose at N-glycosylation positions at N-terminal domain present on the S1 of S protein | [258] |
Internalization of SARS-CoV-2 substrate | ||
NRP1 | [266,271] | |
TLR1/4/6 | Hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions with S1 of S protein | [2] |
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Gadanec, L.K.; McSweeney, K.R.; Qaradakhi, T.; Ali, B.; Zulli, A.; Apostolopoulos, V. Can SARS-CoV-2 Virus Use Multiple Receptors to Enter Host Cells? Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 992. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22030992
Gadanec LK, McSweeney KR, Qaradakhi T, Ali B, Zulli A, Apostolopoulos V. Can SARS-CoV-2 Virus Use Multiple Receptors to Enter Host Cells? International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(3):992. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22030992
Chicago/Turabian StyleGadanec, Laura Kate, Kristen Renee McSweeney, Tawar Qaradakhi, Benazir Ali, Anthony Zulli, and Vasso Apostolopoulos. 2021. "Can SARS-CoV-2 Virus Use Multiple Receptors to Enter Host Cells?" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 3: 992. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22030992