Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Nanocarriers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Classified by FAO Group
3. Physicochemical Characterization of Plant-Derived EVs
4. Molecular Composition of Plant-Derived EVs
5. In Vitro and In Vivo Evidence of Therapeutic Efficacy of Plant-Derived EVs
6. Clinical Trials
7. Conclusions
- Surface modifications to improve their targeting ability or monitor their delivery [39].
- Fusion with liposomes, to elicit a lower immune response and increase its colloidal stability [40].
- Exosome-coated metal–organic framework nanoparticles [41], that facilitate targeted delivery without premature leakage.
Common Name | FAO 1 Group | Scientific Name | Sample | Isolation Method | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peas | 4—PULSES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS | Pisum sativum | Seed juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [20] |
Sunflower seeds | 6—OIL-BEARING CROPS AND DERIVED PRODUCTS | Helianthus annuus | Seeds extracellular fluids | Vacuum infiltration/centrifugation procedure/differential centrifugation/ultracentrifugation | [24] |
Coconut | Cocos nucifera L. | Coconut water or coconut milk | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [20,23] | |
Coconut juice | |||||
Soybean | Glycine soja | Bean juice | |||
Carrot | 7—VEGETABLES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS | Daucus carota | Root juice | Density gradient centrifugation | [13,29] |
Broccoli | Brassica oleracea | Flowering head and stalk juice | |||
Tomatoes | Lycopersicon esculentum | Tomato juice | Density gradient centrifugation Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [5,18] | |
Watermelons | Citrullus lanatus | Mesocarp juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [18,27] | |
Melons | Cucumis melo | Fruit juice | |||
Garlic | Allium sativum | Clove juice | Density gradient centrifugation | [29] | |
Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [12] | ||||
Grapes | 8—FRUITS AND DERIVED PRODUCTS | Vitis vinifera | Fruit juice | Density gradient centrifugation | [8,9,17] |
Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [18] | ||||
Lemons | Citrus limon L. | Fruit juice | Density gradient centrifugation | [22] | |
Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [5] | ||||
Grapefruit | Citrus paradisi | Fruit juice | Density gradient centrifugation Lipid re-assembling via sonication Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [7,12,15,17,19,20,29,34] | |
Blueberries | Vaccinium myrtillus Vaccinium corymbosum | Fruit juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation | [20] | |
Kiwis | Actinidia chinensis | ||||
Oranges | Citrus sinensis | ||||
Pears | Pyrus communis | ||||
Pineapples | Ananas comosus | Fruit juice | - | [42] | |
Ginger | 10—SPICES | Zingiber officinale | Root Juice | Density gradient centrifugation Lipid re-assembling via film hydration/sonication/extrusion method Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [9,11,12,19,20,21,25,28,29] |
Turmeric | Curcuma longa | Root Juice | Density gradient centrifugation Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [12,29] | |
Cilantro (coriander) | Coriandrum sativum | Leaf juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [12] | |
Aloe vera | - | Aloe vera barbadensis | Leaf juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [12] |
Dandelion | Taraxacum | ||||
Lavender | Lavandula | ||||
Cactus | Cactus | Stem juice | Differential centrifugation/filtration/ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation | [12] | |
Tobacco leaves | 13—TOBACCO AND RUBBER AND OTHER CROPS | Nicotiana tabacum | Apoplastic fluid from fresh or dried leaves | Vacuum infiltration/centrifugation/differential centrifugation | [27] |
Lesser periwinkle plant | - | Vinca minor L. | Apoplastic fluid from fresh or dried leaves | Vacuum infiltration/centrifugation/differential centrifugation | [27,31] |
European mistletoe plant | Viscum album L. | ||||
Arabidopsis plant | Arabidopsis thaliana |
Plant | Size (nm) | Morphology | z-Potential (mV) | Delivery Route | Effect/Disease | Therapeutic Biomolecule | Loading (%) Enc. Eff. (%) 9 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grapes | 200–800 (EM 1, DLS 2) 380 (av. diam. 3) | Spherical | ~−27 | Oral | DSS-induced colitis 4 | - | - | [8] |
500–1000 (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped | ~−40 | Intestinal homeo-stasis | - | - | [9] | ||
30–200 (EM 1) | Spherical | - | - | - | - | - | [18] | |
Grape-fruits | 50–800 (EM 1, DLS 2) 253 (av. diam. 3) Re-ssembled GrfNVs 5 50–400 (EM 1, DLS 2) 180 (av. diam. 3) | Spherical or cup-shaped Re-assembled GrfNVs 5 Flower-like | - | i.v. 6 injection | Cancer | PTX 7 Folic acid | - | [17] |
50–100 100–1000 (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped | ~−40 | Oral | Intestinal homeo-stasis | - | - | [9] | |
105–400 (EM 1, DLS 2) 210 (av. diam. 3) | ~−25 | DSS-induced colitis 4 | Methotrexate | - | [7] | |||
GrfNVs5 ~200 IGrfNVs8 ~200 (EM 1) | GrfNVs5 spherical IGrfNVs 8 spherical | GrfNVs5 negative IGrfNVs 8 negative | i.v. 6 injection | DSS-induced colitis 4 Inflammation | Doxorubicin Curcumin | Enc. Eff. (%)9 Dox-IGrfNVs10 70–80 Cur-IGrfNVs11 50–60 | [15] | |
GrfNVs5 110 (av. diam. 3) OGrfNVs12 120 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) | - | - | Liver metastasis | miR-18a | - | [34] | ||
GrfNVs5 102.4 (av. diam. 3) pGrfNVs13 87.2 (av. diam. 3) FA-pGrfNVs14 72.4 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) | Spherical | GrfNVs5 −38.15 pGrfNVs13 −13.9 FA-pGrfNVs14 −31 | Intranasal | Brain tumor | miR17 | Enc. Eff. (%)9 GNVs5 <20 pGNVs13 80–90 | [19] | |
2 populations (DLS 2) | Spherical or oval (AFM 15) | - | - | - | - | - | [20] | |
Ginger | 100–1000 (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped | ~−25 | Oral | Intestinal homeostasis | - | - | [9] |
GiNVs16 100–1000 (DLS 2) 386 (av. diam. 3) GiNVs217 100–1000 (DLS 2) 294 (av. diam. 3) | Spherical (AFM 15) | GiNVs16 −24.6 GiNVs217 −29.7 | Oral | Liver-related diseases | - | - | [10] | |
Re-assembled GiNVs18 188 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) Dox-GiNVs19 188 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped Re-assembled GiNVs 18Spherical Dox-GiNVs 19Spherical | ~−16 | i.v. 6 injection | Colon cancer | Doxorubicin | Dox-GiNVs19 Up to 95.9% ± 0.26% | [28] | |
GiNVs_118 292 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) GiNVs_218 231 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) GiNVs_318 219 (av. diam. 3) (DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped | (−12.9)–(−2.1) | Oral | Inflammatory bowel disease Colitis-associated cancer | - | - | [25] | |
GiNVs16 232 (av. diam. 3) Reassembled GiNVs16 189 (av. diam. 3) (EM1, DLS 2) | Spherical | ~−18 | Oral | Ulcerative colitis | siRNA-CD98 | - | [11] | |
2 populations (DLS 2) | Spherical or oval (AFM 15) | - | - | - | - | - | [20] | |
50–150 (EM 1) | Spherical | - | Oral | Gut diseases | - | [29] | ||
120–150 (EM1, NTA 21) | - | inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activity 20 (Alzheimer’s disease) | - | - | [12] | |||
100–600 (NTA 21) | - | - | Oral cavity | Periodontitis | - | - | [21] | |
Carrots | 80–200 and 700–1500 (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical or cup-shaped | ~−25 | Oral | Intestinal homeostasis | - | - | [9] |
Lemons | 50–70 (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical | - | Intra tumor (locally) Intraperitoneally | Cancer | - | - | [22] |
30–100 (EM1) | Spherical or cup-shaped | - | - | - | - | - | [5] | |
Broccoli | 18–120 32 (av. diam. 3) (EM 1, DLS 2) | Spherical | −17 | Oral | Colitis | - | - | [13] |
Sun-flower seeds | 50–200 (EM 1) | Spherical (phospho-lipid layer) | - | - | - | - | - | [24] |
Coconut | EVs from coconut water 13 (EM 1) and 60 (DLS 2) EVs from coconut milk 30 (EM 1) and 100 (DLS 2) | Spherical | - | - | - | - | - | [23] |
2 populations (DLS 2) | Spherical or oval (AFM 15) | - | - | - | - | - | [20] | |
Water-melons | 100–200 (EM 1) 32 (av. diam. 3) (NTA 21) | Cup-shaped | - | - | - | - | - | [30] |
Blue-berries | 2 populations (DLS2) | Spherical or oval (AFM 15) | - | - | - | - | - | [20] |
Kiwis | >2 populations (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Oranges | 2 populations (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Peas | 2 populations (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Pears | 2 populations (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Soybean | 2 populations (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Melons | 40–70 and 100–1000 (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Tomatoes | 100–1000 (DLS 2) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Ara-bidopsis leaves | P40 fraction22 50–300 150 (av. diam. 3) (EM1, DLS 2) P100 fraction22 10–17 12 (av. diam. 3) (EM 1, DLS 2) | spherical | - | - | - | - | - | [31] |
Tobacco leaves | 70 ± 20 and 520 ± 170 (EM 1) | - | - | - | - | - | [27] | |
Lesser peri-winkle plant | 380 ± 200 (EM 1) | - | - | - | - | - | ||
European mistletoe plant | 280 ± 115 (EM 1) | - | - | - | - | - |
Plant | Prevalent Bioactive Lipids | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Grapes | PA 1 (53%) PE 2 (26%) | [8] |
Grapefruits | DGDG 4 (24%) PC 3 (23%) DAG 6 (17%) MGDG 5 (~13%) | [17] |
PE 2 (46%) PC 3 (29%) | [7] | |
PC 3 (36%) PE 2 PA 1 (3.5%) | [29] | |
Ginger | PA 1 (37–40%) DGDG 4 (33–40%) MGMG 8 (17–20%) | [10] |
PA 1 (48%) MGDG 5 (28%) DGDG 6 (15%) | [28] | |
PA 1 (~25–40%) DGDG 4 (~25–40%) MGDG 5 (~20–30%) | [25] | |
PA 1 (42%) DGDG 4 (27%) MGDG 5 (19%). | [11] | |
PA 1 (35%) MGMG 8 DGDG 4 | [29] | |
PC 3 (48%) TAG 9 (9%) | [21] | |
Turmeric | PA 1 (34%) MGMG 8 DGDG 4 | [29] |
Sunflower seeds | PA 1 PI 7 | [24] |
Garlic | PC 3 (53%) PE 2 PA 1 (5.5%) | [29] |
Condition/Disease | Year/Phase | EV Source | Administration | Therapeutic Molecule | Results/Status | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Colon cancer (NCT01294072) | 2011 Phase I Clinical Trial | Plants | Tablets oral, daily for 7 days | Curcumin | Active, not recruiting | [37] |
Oral Mucositis (NCT01668849) | 2012 Phase I Clinical Trial | Grapes | Dietary Supplement oral, daily for 35 days | - | Active, not recruiting | [43] |
Insulin-related conditions Chronic inflammation in POS 1 patients (NCT03493984) | 2018 Preliminary Clinical Trial | Ginger Aloe | - | - | Recruiting | [38] |
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Karamanidou, T.; Tsouknidas, A. Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Nanocarriers. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010191
Karamanidou T, Tsouknidas A. Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Nanocarriers. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(1):191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010191
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaramanidou, Theodora, and Alexander Tsouknidas. 2022. "Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Nanocarriers" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 1: 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010191