Progesterone: A Unique Hormone with Immunomodulatory Roles in Pregnancy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Immunosuppressive Capabilities of Progesterone
3. Cytokines and Pregnancy Complications
3.1. Recurrent Spontaneous Miscarriage
3.2. Pre-Eclampsia
3.3. Preterm Delivery
4. Supplementation with Progestogens
4.1. Supplementation with Progesterone
4.2. Supplementation with the Oral Progestogen Dydrogesterone
Ref. No. | Type of Study | Outcome of Study |
---|---|---|
Supplementation with Progesterone | ||
[92] | Meta-analysis of 14 trials (2003) | No difference in risk of miscarriage |
[93] | Update of above study (2008) | Reduced rate of miscarriage |
[94] | Critical evaluation of randomized, placebo-controlled trials | Increase in live-birth rate |
[95] | Meta-analysis of 12 trials | Reduction in number of miscarriages as compared to placebo |
[97] | Randomized, placebo-controlled study on women with uRSM * | No evidence of improved live-birth rate |
Supplementation with Progesterone | ||
[111] | Placebo-controlled study on dydrogesterone supplementation in women with uRSM | Fewer miscarriages as compared to placebo |
[112] | Prospective, open, randomized study on women with uRSM | Significant reduction in miscarriage |
[113] | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study | Significant decrease in number of miscarriages, increase in mean gestational age at delivery |
[114] | Meta-analyses of studies on dydrogesterone supplementation | Significant reduction in odds for miscarriage |
[115] | Meta-analysis of 13 studies on dydrogesterone supplementation | Significantly higher pregnancy rate |
[116] | Systemic review and meta-analysis | Significant reduction in rate of miscarriage |
5. Progesterone-Induced Blocking Factor (PIBF)
6. Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
IFN | Interferon |
IL | Interleukin |
PBMC | Peripheral blood mononuclear cells |
PE | Pre-eclampsia |
PIBF | Progesterone-induced blocking factor |
PR | Progesterone receptor |
PTD | Preterm labor |
RSM | Recurrent spontaneous miscarriage |
Th | T helper |
TNF | Tumor necrosis factor |
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Raghupathy, R.; Szekeres-Bartho, J. Progesterone: A Unique Hormone with Immunomodulatory Roles in Pregnancy. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031333
Raghupathy R, Szekeres-Bartho J. Progesterone: A Unique Hormone with Immunomodulatory Roles in Pregnancy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(3):1333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031333
Chicago/Turabian StyleRaghupathy, Raj, and Julia Szekeres-Bartho. 2022. "Progesterone: A Unique Hormone with Immunomodulatory Roles in Pregnancy" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 3: 1333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031333