Next Article in Journal
Natural Gum-Based Functional Bioactive Films and Coatings: A Review
Next Article in Special Issue
Longitudinal Changes in BDNF and MMP-9 Protein Plasma Levels in Children after Cochlear Implantation
Previous Article in Journal
The γ-Core Motif Peptides of Plant AMPs as Novel Antimicrobials for Medicine and Agriculture
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Downstaging Concept in Treatment-Resistant Depression: Spotlight on Ketamine
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJMS
Volume 24
Issue 1
10.3390/ijms24010479
ijms-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Changes in T-Cell Subpopulations and Cytokine Levels in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression—A Preliminary Study

by
Łukasz Piotr Szałach
1,2,
Wiesław Jerzy Cubała
2 and
Katarzyna Aleksandra Lisowska
1,*
1
Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland
2
Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010479
Submission received: 27 November 2022 / Revised: 21 December 2022 / Accepted: 24 December 2022 / Published: 28 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Molecular Neurobiology in Poland)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Although there is some evidence for the involvement of cytokines and T cells in the pathophysiology of treatment-resistant depression (TRD), the nature of this relationship is not entirely clear. Therefore, we compared T-cell subpopulations and serum cytokine levels in TRD patients to find relationships between their immunological profiles, clinical presentation, and episode severity. Blood samples from TRD patients (n = 20) and healthy people (n = 13) were collected and analyzed by flow cytometry. We analyzed the percentages of helper and cytotoxic T cells according to the expression of selected activation markers, including CD28, CD69, CD25, CD95, and HLA-DR. The serum levels of inflammatory cytokines IL12p70, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8 were also determined. TRD patients had a lower percentage of CD3+CD4+CD25+ and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells than healthy people. They also had lower serum levels of IL-12p70 and TNF-α, whereas IL-8 levels were significantly higher. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis demonstrated that serum IL-8 values above 19.55 pg/mL were associated with a 10.26 likelihood ratio of developing TRD. No connections were found between the MADRS score and immunological parameters. These results show that TRD patients have reduced percentages of T cells expressing activation antigens (CD25 and CD95) and higher serum concentrations of proinflammatory and chemotactic IL-8. These changes may indicate reduced activity of the immune system and the important role of IL-8 in maintaining chronic inflammation in the course of depression.

1. Introduction

Depression is a severe mental condition that may occur as major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD). According to psychoneuroimmunology, mutual interactions between the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems could influence a patient’s mental state [1]. Therefore, dysregulation of immune system activity and chronic inflammation seems to play an essential role in the pathogenesis of depression.
Several meta-analyses confirmed that MDD patients have increased serum levels of cytokines regulating inflammation, including interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) [2,3,4], IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-18 [5,6,7]. A few studies demonstrated that patients suffering from depression have a reduced percentage of blood lymphocytes [8,9] but a high concentration of serum IL-2, a cytokine essential for T-cell differentiation into effector cells [6,7,10]. Some authors suggest that the stimulating effect of IL-2 is suppressed by the soluble IL-2 receptor (sIL-2R) in the blood [3]. In some other studies, the percentage of CD3+ T cells, especially CD3+CD4+ (helper) T cells, was reported to be increased in MDD patients, whereas the percentage of CD3+CD8+ (cytotoxic) T cells was reported to be decreased [11,12]. In addition, in meta-analysis, Zorrilla et al. [13] reported an increase in the CD4+/CD8+ ratio in MDD patients. However, the most recent studies show no evidence that the percentage of T cells or their two central populations, CD4+ and CD8+ cells, changes during depression [10,14,15]. T cells of MDD patients have also been shown to express some activation markers, including CD95, which is involved in the process of apoptosis [16,17]; CD69, an early activation marker [18,19]; and CD25, an alpha chain of the IL-2 receptor [18,20].
Several studies showed that MDD patients present with high concentrations of IL-12 [10,21], which is involved in promoting Th1-type immune responses and stimulating the production of high levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) [10,22]. Th17 cell number, a subset of proinflammatory T-helper cells, also increases in depression [23,24], most likely due to higher serum IL-6 levels. MDD patients also are characterized by a decreased percentage of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ cells, which are regulatory T cells (Tregs) responsible for maintaining tolerance against self-antigens, thus preventing autoimmune reactions [9,23,25].
In BD patients, several cytokines are elevated, indicating the hyperactivity of innate immunity. A meta-analysis by Modabbernia et al. [26] showed that serum IL-4, IL-10, TNF-α, sIL-2R, sIL-6R, and soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1) in BD patients are, in general, significantly increased compared to healthy people. A recent meta-analysis also showed that IL-8 levels in BD patients are significantly increased [27]. Few alterations in the lymphocyte profile in patients with BD have been demonstrated, especially in a subpopulation of T cells. For example, female euthymic patients are characterized by fewer Tregs and a higher number of cytotoxic CD8+CD28− T cells than healthy people [28]. Younger euthymic BD patients (younger than 40 years old) have a higher percentage of Tregs [29]. In another study, euthymic BD patients showed significantly increased numbers of Th17 and Tregs compared with healthy controls [30]. A reduced number of cytotoxic T cells and an increased number of activated (CD4+CD25+) helper T cells with fewer IL-10-expressing Tregs were also described [31].
Although several pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapeutic options are available, treatment resistance among MDD patients is high and can reach up to one-third of patients suffering from depression [32]. Treatment resistance is an inadequate response to two or more antidepressant trials of adequate doses and duration [33]. For bipolar depression, we define treatment-resistant depression (TRD) as a clinically unsatisfactory response following at least two trials of different medicinal treatments in presumably adequate doses and durations within a specific phase of bipolar disorder [34].
Several studies have shown that MDD patients with TRD have higher serum IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α [35], and sIL-6R [36,37] levels than non-TRD patients. However, the most recent study showed that MDD patients with TRD were characterized by lower elevation of IL-6 and TNF-α than non-TRD patients [38]. There are no data available on T-cell changes in this particular patient group. Another study showed that BD patients with TRD were characterized by higher levels of IL-6 and TNF-α and lower levels of sTNFR1 than MDD patients [39]. In BD patients, elevated IL-1β was proposed to predict treatment resistance [40].
In this paper, we compare main T-cell subpopulations and serum cytokine levels in TRD patients to find relationships between patients’ immunological profiles, clinical presentation, and episodic severity. Although there is some evidence for the involvement of cytokines and T cells in TRD pathophysiology, the nature of this relationship is not entirely clear. Therefore, we analyzed the percentages of helper and cytotoxic T cells according to the expression of the CD28 antigen due to its role in antigen presentation and selected activation markers, including CD69, CD25, CD95, and HLA-DR. The serum levels of inflammation-related cytokines IL12p70, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8 were also determined.

2. Results

2.1. Comparison of T-Cell Subpopulations and Serum Cytokine Levels between TRD Patients and Healthy People

The study groups consisted of 20 inpatients diagnosed with TRD in the course of MDD or BD without psychotic features and 13 healthy people (Table 1). There was no difference between TRD patients and healthy people in terms of age or BMI.
The percentage of CD3+ T cells and their main subpopulations, CD3+CD4+ cells (helper T cells) and CD3+CD8+ (cytotoxic T cells) cells, were analyzed in healthy people and TRD patients, then compared with each other. In addition, in each of the T-cell populations, we analyzed the percentage of CD28+ (costimulatory antigen), CD69+ (early-activation antigen), CD25+, HLA-DR+ (middle-activation antigens), and CD95+ (activation protein also involved in apoptosis) subpopulations. Figure 1 shows an exemplary cytometric analysis of T-cell subpopulations in TRD patients.
We found no significant difference in the central populations of T cells (CD3+, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ cells) between healthy people and TRD patients (Table 2). There were differences in the percentage of CD3+CD4+CD25+ (Figure 1D,E) and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells. TRD patients had a lower percentage of CD3+CD4+CD25+ cells (median value of 6.99 compared to 13.16 in HC) (Table 2, Figure 2A). They also had a lower percentage of CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (median value of 18.2 compared to 30.3 in HC) (Table 2, Figure 2B). No significant changes in other examined subpopulations were found between groups (Table 2).
There were significant differences in serum cytokine levels between TRD patients and healthy people (Table 2). Healthy people had a higher level of serum IL-12p70 (median value of 2.65 pg/mL) compared to TRD patients, who, in most cases, had IL-12p70 contents below the level of detection (median value of 0 pg/mL) (Table 2, Figure 3A). They also had higher TNF-α level (median value of 1.2 pg/mL) compared to TRD patients (median value of 0 pg/mL) (Table 2, Figure 3B).
On the other hand, IL-8 levels were significantly increased in TRD patients (median value of 185.9 pg/mL) compared to healthy people (median value of 11.33 pg/mL) (Table 2, Figure 3C). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis demonstrated that serum IL-8 levels above 19.55 pg/mL were associated with a 10.26 likelihood ratio of developing TRD, with a sensitivity of 78.95% and a specificity of 92.31% (Figure 4).

2.2. Correlations between Immunological and Clinical Parameters

A psychiatrist assessed all patients with the MADRS scale. The median MADRS score in MDD patients was 32.5. We performed a correlation test of clinical characteristics and immunological parameters in both patient groups. No correlation was observed between MADRS and any immunological parameter in TRD patients. MADRS was only negatively correlated with patient BMI (r = −0.563, p = 0.010). Patient age was also negatively correlated with serum IL-1β (r = −0.548, p = 0.015) and IL-8 (r = −0.502, p = 0.029).
Additionally, a positive correlation was found between the length of the current episode and percentage of CD3+CD4+ cells (r = 0.620, p = 0.004), and a negative correlation was identified between episode length and percentage of CD3+CD8+ cells (r = −0.599, p = 0.005) (Table 3). Current episode length was also positively correlated with the CD4+/CD8+ ratio (r = 0.604, p = 0.005). After adjusting for potential confounders (sex, age, BMI, and smoking), there was a significant interaction between these variables.

2.3. Correlations between Immunological Parameters

We have found some correlations between the percentages of T-cell subpopulations and serum cytokine levels in TRD patients (Table 4). There was a significant positive correlation between IL-10 and CD3+CD8+ (r = 0.468, p = 0.043) and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (r = 0.579, p = 0.021). There was a negative correlation between IL-10 and CD3+CD4+ cells (r = −0.473, p = 0.041) and between IL-10 and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio (r = −0.470, p = 0.042). There was a positive correlation between IL-6 and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (r = 0.573, p = 0.022). IL-1β concentration was positively correlated with CD3+CD4+CD25+ (r = 0.573, p = 0.01) and CD3+CD4+CD69+ (r = 0.592, p = 0.014) cells. IL-8 levels correlated positively with CD3+CD4+CD69+ cells (r = 0.564, p = 0.02) and CD3+CD4+HLA-DR+ (r = 0.544, p = 0.026) cells.

3. Discussion

Our results show several significant findings in the immune profiles of TRD patients. First, they had significantly higher serum IL-8 levels, with a median of 185.9 pg/mL, which is sixteen times higher compared to healthy people. Additionally, TRD patients were characterized by lower serum IL-12p70 and TNF-α levels than healthy people. Third, we found no statistically significant differences in the most often described proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and IL-6. Finally, with respect to T-cell subpopulations, the median percentage values of CD3+CD4+CD25+ and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells were twice as low as in healthy people, without any changes in other subpopulations.
As mentioned in the Introduction, some studies have shown that TRD patients have higher serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α than non-TRD patients [35,39]. However, other studies show that TRD patients are characterized by a lower elevation of IL-6 and TNF-α compared to non-TRD patients [38]. Kiraly et al. [41] recently demonstrated that TRD patients have only high serum IL-6 compared with healthy people, without any changes in IL-1β or TNF-α. In our study, TRD patients had lower TNF-α levels, without changes in IL-1β or IL-6. TNF-α is a proinflammatory cytokine produced by several cells, primarily macrophages, in response to bacterial products and IL-1 signaling [18]. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 are mainly involved in acute inflammation, leading to healing, trigger removal, tissue repair, and some systemic autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Chronic inflammation accompanying some diseases, including depression, is characterized by a lack of canonical biomarkers [42]. The diagnostic value of IL-1β or TNF-α is also somewhat limited due to their half-life of 5–10 min [43]. In our study, the serum level of IL-1β was slightly decreased in TRD patients, which could explain the lower TNF-α level observed in patient sera. Lower (sometimes even undetectable) cytokine levels in TRD patients could indicate reduced macrophage activation due to prolonged, chronic inflammation.
IL-12p70, which is mainly produced by macrophages and dendritic cells, induces activation and proliferation of Th1 cells, which are responsible for cell-mediated response to pathogens [44]. According to some authors, MDD patients present with high concentrations of IL-12 [10,21]. In our study, TRD patients were characterized by lower serum IL-12p70 levels than healthy people, which may indicate a shift in immune response from Th1 (cellular) to Th2 (humoral) response. Similar results were reported by Cosma et al. [45]. However, in vitro studies demonstrated increased activation of M1 macrophages, which are responsible for activating Th1 responses. This difference may occur because in circulation, cells are influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters, including glucocorticoids, whereas in vitro, this influence is limited.
We also observed very high IL-8 levels in TRD patients, with a maximum of 2156 pg/mL, compared to a maximum level of 20.2 pg/mL in healthy people. Similar results were reported by Strawbridge et al. [35], who also suggested that elevated IL-8 is indicative of treatment-resistant MDD. Using ROC analysis, we were able to confirm that high serum IL-8 levels are associated with a 10.26 likelihood ratio of developing TRD. IL-8 is a crucial mediator that is mainly produced by monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils and mainly responsible for neutrophil migration. However, its role in depression is currently unclear. Some previous findings indicated that human microglia can synthesize IL-8 in response to proinflammatory stimuli and that anti-inflammatory cytokines downregulate the production of this chemokine [46]. Furthermore, in a study by Taub et al. [47], a marked T-cell infiltrate was observed in the IL-8 skin injection site, confirming that IL-8 is also a chemoattractant for lymphocytes.
We failed to demonstrate any correlation between cytokines and MADRS score. The latest study by Kofod et al. [48] showed no correlation between any measured inflammatory markers, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, or IL-8, and MADRS in patients with moderate–severe depression. In our study, the MADRS score was negatively correlated only with patient BMI. Obesity can be characterized by a chronic low-grade inflammatory state that originates primarily from adipocytes capable of producing proinflammatory cytokines. In a study by Huet et al. [49], severely obese MDD patients (BMI > 40 kg/m2) had higher MADRS scores compared to lean people and people with overweight or moderate obesity. However, in another study, no relationship was between MADRS and the severity of obesity measured by BMI, although women with low BMI (≤18.5 kg/m2) achieved significantly higher MADRS scores than other women [50]. Differences in body fat distribution among TRD patients could explain disparities in these results. Whereas BMI is the most common measure of obesity, it is not fully representative of body fat distribution, especially central adiposity, because, compared to subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose tissue is considered to be associated with inflammation [51].
We found no difference in the percentage of T cells or their two central populations, CD3+CD4+ (helper) and CD3+CD8+ (cytotoxic) cells, which is in line with reports by other authors [9,14,15]. However, we observed correlations between current episode length and main T-cell subpopulations: a positive correlation with the percentage of CD3+CD4+ and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio and negative correlation with CD3+CD8+ cells. The results obtained in this study suggest that the longer the current episode, the higher the percentages of helper T cells. However, because no similar results have been reported in the literature, the meaning of this correlation remains unclear. We also observed correlations between percentages of several T-cell subpopulations and serum levels of IL-10, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8, confirming that the lymphocyte profile in TRD patients is related to inflammation-related cytokines. Proinflammatory IL-1β and IL-6 were mainly correlated with T cells expressing activation antigens (CD25, CD69, HLA-DR, or CD95). Moreover, anti-inflammatory IL-10 was negatively correlated with CD3+CD4+ cells, possibly as a response to chronic inflammation.
The median percentage of CD3+CD4+CD25+ cells in TRD patients was nearly twice as low as that in healthy people. This finding is consistent with previous studies on lymphocyte profiles in MDD patients [2,12,22], where CD25-positive cells were identified as Tregs. Unfortunately, the lack of a Treg marker, i.e., the FoxP3 transcription factor, does not allow us to indisputably conclude that we are dealing with a Treg deficiency. The CD25 antigen is also an activation marker in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Therefore, CD25-positive cell deficiency may be associated with an inadequate T-cell response as expressed by changes in serum IL-12p70 or TNF-α in TRD patients.
Previous studies reported an association between increased expression of CD95 on T cells with increased cell susceptibility to apoptosis [16,48]. In our study, TRD patients were characterized by lower percentages of CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells. On the other hand, no change was found in the percentage of CD3+CD4+CD95+ cells. Unfortunately, the lack of newer studies makes it impossible to compare the obtained results. However, because CD95 is also associated with the activation of T cells, its deficiency, together with the deficiency of CD25-positive cells, could be associated with disorders of T-cell activation in TRD patients.
We did not observe differences in other antigens involved in T-cell activation, CD69, or HLA-DR. The CD69 antigen is a classical early activation marker that appears an hour after T-cell contact with the antigen and rapidly decreases within 4–6 h. In chronic conditions, CD69 is expressed on infiltrated leukocytes at inflammatory sites rather than in blood [52], which could explain why we did not observed changes in its expression in T cells from blood in TRD patients. HLA-DR, on the other hand, is a molecule typically expressed by antigen-presenting cells and is associated with antigen presentation. Therefore, this antigen is also expressed in T cells during their activation. According to some authors, reduced HLA-DR expression is a mechanism that adapts to an overwhelming burst of inflammatory stimuli; a high frequency of HLA-DR+ T cells strongly correlates with severe lymphopenia, systemic inflammation, and cytokine storm rather than with chronic conditions [53].
The present study is subject to potential limitations. First, the included group samples are relatively small. Hence, we were not able to separate several subgroups based on the factors that might have influenced the immune system, such as specific psychiatric medications. The limited number of patients is particularly problematic in studying the T-cell phenotype in TRD. Second, bipolar depression may have been misdiagnosed as MDD because depressive episodes during BD might be indistinguishable from unipolar depression. Third, we did not compare TRD patients with non-TRD patients. Furthermore, our observations and those of other authors show that serum cytokine levels in depressed patients vary, which may be related to the type of treatment and the response to this treatment. Fifth, our study included only Caucasian individuals in each of the study groups. Therefore, our results might not be fully applicable to different ethnic groups.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Study Groups

The study groups consisted of 20 inpatients diagnosed with depression in the course of MDD or BD without psychotic features (Table 1). Subjects were examined by clinicians using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) to verify the diagnosis using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) criteria, as well as with the Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS). In addition, all participants were described as treatment-resistance during the current episode, with MDD patients assessed by the Massachusetts General Hospital Antidepressant Treatment Response Questionnaire. A total of 13 healthy people of similar age were also included in the study.
The exclusion criteria for the present study were uncontrolled arterial hypertension; unstable coronary artery disease; increased intracranial pressure; acute and chronic infectious diseases; inflammatory, autoimmune, and metabolic diseases; and neoplastic diseases. An additional inclusion criterion for the control group was an absence of mental disorders. Only medically stable adult inpatients who were able to communicate and provide consent were enrolled in the study. All subjects provided written informed consent to participate in the study. For each participant, written consent was obtained after the procedures had been fully explained. The Independent Bioethics Committee for Scientific Research approved the study (consent nos. NKBBN/172/2017 and NKBBN/172-674/2019). A flow chart of the study methodology is presented in Figure 5.
The tested material was 5 mL of peripheral venous blood collected in EDTA tubes to determine lymphocyte subpopulations. In addition, 5 mL of blood was collected in anticoagulant-free tubes to collect serum to assess concentrations of cytokines. We stored serum samples at 80 °C.

4.2. Ex Vivo Determination of T-Cell Subpopulations

Samples of 100 μL per tube blood were transferred for staining with monoclonal antibodies and red blood cell (RBC) lysis. RBCs were lysed with buffer containing 0.8% NH4Cl and 0.1% KHCO3. Cells were then washed with PBS (phosphate-buffered saline) and stained with FITC-conjugated anti-CD3 or anti-CD95, RPE-Cy5-conjugated anti-CD4 (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, CA, USA), APC-H7-conjugated anti-CD8, PE-conjugated anti-CD28, anti-CD25, anti-CD69, or anti-HLA-DR (BD Pharmingen, USA) for 30 min at 4 °C in the dark. Then, cells were washed with PBS and suspended in 200 mL of suitable buffer for flow cytometric analysis using a FACSVerse instrument (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA).

4.3. Cytokine Measurement in Plasma Samples

A cytometric bead array (CBA) human inflammatory cytokine kit (BD Biosciences, USA) was used according to the manufacturer’s protocol to determine the levels of IL12p70, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8 in serum samples from healthy people and both groups of patients. Quantitative cytometric fluorescence analysis was performed using a FACScan cytometer (Becton Dickinson, USA). The detection range for all measured cytokines was between 20 and 5000 pg/mL. The kit performance was optimized to analyze physiologically relevant concentrations (pg/mL levels) of specific cytokine proteins in tissue culture supernatants and serum samples. The limit of detection range for IL-8 was 3.6 pg/mL, 7.2 pg/mL for IL-1β, 2.5 pg/mL for IL-6, 3.3 pg/mL for IL-10, 3.7 pg/mL for TNF-α, and 1.9 pg/mL for IL-12p70.

4.4. Analysis and Statistics

Twenty thousand events corresponding to the light-scatter characteristics of viable lymphocytes were acquired from each sample to analyze T-cell subpopulations. First, lymphocytes were selected based on forward- and side-scatter characteristics (Figure 1A). Then, T cells were identified based on their positivity for the CD3 antigen (Figure 1B). Next, helper T cells were identified based on the expression of the CD4 antigen, and cytotoxic T cells were identified based on CD8 expression (Figure 1C). Finally, subpopulations expressing different activation antigens, e.g., the CD25 antigen (Figure 1D,E), were identified. Cytometric data were analyzed with FlowJo 10 software (Beckton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA).
Statistical data analysis was conducted using GraphPad 9 (version 9) statistical software. First, the distribution of the examined variables was checked with Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk normality tests. Then, depending on data distribution, quantitative variables were analyzed with a two-tailed unpaired t-test, Mann–Whitney U test, or Spearman rank correlation test. A significance level of p < 0.05 was set for all analyses.

5. Conclusions

Although there is some evidence for the involvement of cytokines and T cells in TRD pathophysiology, the nature of this relationship is not entirely clear. Our results show that TRD patients have reduced percentages of T cells expressing activation antigens (CD25 and CD95) and higher serum levels of proinflammatory and chemotactic IL-8. These changes may indicate reduced activity of the immune system and the important role of IL-8 in maintaining chronic inflammation in the course of depression. Analyzing immunological parameters in these groups of patients requires larger sample sizes. The human immune system is susceptible to environmental factors and has many connections with the endocrine and nervous systems. Large study groups or prospective studies may answer the problem of differential observations in these groups of patients, making it possible to study the complicated relationships between TRD and response to treatment or correlation with disease activity.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Ł.P.S. and K.A.L.; methodology, K.A.L.; validation, K.A.L.; formal analysis, Ł.P.S.; resources, Ł.P.S. and W.J.C.; writing—original draft preparation, Ł.P.S.; writing—review and editing, K.A.L. and W.J.C.; visualization, Ł.P.S.; supervision, K.A.L.; funding acquisition, Ł.P.S. and W.J.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the statutory funds of the Medical University of Gdańsk (no. 02-0039/07/221, granted to Wiesław Cubała) and Young Researcher’s grant no. 01-423/08/262 (granted to Ł.P.S.).

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Independent Bioethics Committee for Scientific Research at the Medical University of Gdańsk.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

All cytometric analyses were performed using instruments acquired for the Cellular Function and Pathology Imaging Network of the Medical University of Gdańsk and the University of Gdańsk.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Pariante, C.M. Psychoneuroimmunology or immunopsychiatry? Lancet Psychiatry 2015, 2, 197–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Dowlati, Y.; Herrmann, N.; Swardfager, W.; Liu, H.; Sham, L.; Reim, E.K.; Lanctôt, K.L. A meta-analysis of cytokines in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 67, 446–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Liu, Y.; Ho, R.C.; Mak, A. Interleukin (IL)-6, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and soluble interleukin-2 receptors (sIL-2R) are elevated in patients with major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. J. Affect. Disord. 2012, 139, 230–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Strawbridge, R.; Arnone, D.; Danese, A.; Papadopoulos, A.; Herane Vives, A.; Cleare, A.J. Inflammation and clinical response to treatment in depression: A meta-analysis. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015, 25, 1532–1543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Alcocer-Gómez, E.; Casas-Barquero, N.; Williams, M.R.; Romero-Guillena, S.L.; Cañadas-Lozano, D.; Bullón, P.; Sánchez-Alcazar, J.A.; Navarro-Pando, J.M.; Cordero, M.D. Antidepressants induce autophagy dependent-NLRP3-inflammasome inhibition in Major depressive disorder. Pharmacol. Res. 2017, 121, 114–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Dahl, J.; Ormstad, H.; Aass, H.C.; Malt, U.F.; Bendz, L.T.; Sandvik, L.; Brundin, L.; Andreassen, O.A. The plasma levels of various cytokines are increased during ongoing depression and are reduced to normal levels after recovery. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2014, 45, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Pérez-Sánchez, G.; Becerril-Villanueva, E.; Arreola, R.; Martínez-Levy, G.; Hernández-Gutiérrez, M.E.; Velasco-Velásquez, M.A.; Alvarez-Herrera, S.; Cruz-Fuentes, C.; Palacios, L.; de la Peña, F.; et al. Inflammatory Profiles in Depressed Adolescents Treated with Fluoxetine: An 8-Week Follow-up Open Study. Mediat. Inflamm. 2018, 2018, 4074051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Demir, S.; Atli, A.; Bulut, M.; İbiloğlu, A.O.; Güneş, M.; Kaya, M.C.; Demirpençe, Ö.; Sır, A. Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio in patients with major depressive disorder undergoing no pharmacological therapy. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2015, 11, 2253–2258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Grosse, L.; Carvalho, L.A.; Birkenhager, T.K.; Hoogendijk, W.J.; Kushner, S.A.; Drexhage, H.A.; Bergink, V. Circulating cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells as potential predictors for antidepressant response in melancholic depression. Restoration of T regulatory cell populations after antidepressant therapy. Psychopharmacology 2016, 233, 1679–1688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Schmidt, F.M.; Lichtblau, N.; Minkwitz, J.; Chittka, T.; Thormann, J.; Kirkby, K.C.; Sander, C.; Mergl, R.; Faßhauer, M.; Stumvoll, M.; et al. Cytokine levels in depressed and non-depressed subjects, and masking effects of obesity. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2014, 55, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Müller, N.; Hofschuster, E.; Ackenheil, M.; Mempel, W.; Eckstein, R. Investigations of the cellular immunity during depression and the free interval: Evidence for an immune activation in affective psychosis. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 1993, 17, 713–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Maes, M.; Stevens, W.; DeClerck, L.; Bridts, C.; Peeters, D.; Schotte, C.; Cosyns, P. Immune disorders in depression: Higher T helper/T suppressor-cytotoxic cell ratio. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1992, 86, 423–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Zorrilla, E.P.; Luborsky, L.; McKay, J.R.; Rosenthal, R.; Houldin, A.; Tax, A.; McCorkle, R.; Seligman, D.A.; Schmidt, K. The relationship of depression and stressors to immunological assays: A meta-analytic review. Brain Behav. Immun. 2001, 15, 199–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  14. Başterzi, A.D.; Yazici, K.; Buturak, V.; Cimen, B.; Yazici, A.; Eskandari, G.; Tot Acar, S.; Taşdelen, B. Effects of venlafaxine and fluoxetine on lymphocyte subsets in patients with major depressive disorder: A flow cytometric analysis. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2010, 34, 70–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Patas, K.; Willing, A.; Demiralay, C.; Engler, J.B.; Lupu, A.; Ramien, C.; Schäfer, T.; Gach, C.; Stumm, L.; Chan, K.; et al. T Cell Phenotype and T Cell Receptor Repertoire in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Ivanova, S.A.; Semke, V.Y.; Vetlugina, T.P.; Rakitina, N.M.; Kudyakova, T.A.; Simutkin, G.G. Signs of apoptosis of immunocompetent cells in patients with depression. Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. 2007, 37, 527–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Szuster-Ciesielska, A.; Słotwińska, M.; Stachura, A.; Marmurowska-Michałowska, H.; Dubas-Slemp, H.; Bojarska-Junak, A.; Kandefer-Szerszeń, M. Accelerated apoptosis of blood leukocytes and oxidative stress in blood of patients with major depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 32, 686–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Duggal, N.A.; Upton, J.; Phillips, A.C.; Hampson, P.; Lord, J.M. Depressive symptoms post hip fracture in older adults are associated with phenotypic and functional alterations in T cells. Immun. Ageing 2014, 11, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Pietruczuk, K.; Jakuszkowiak, K.; Landowski, J.; Witkowski, J.M. Comparison of chosen immune system parameters in patients suffering from depression and healthy donors. Psychiatria 2005, 2, 210–216. [Google Scholar]
  20. Maes, M.; Bosmans, E.; Suy, E.; Vandervorst, C.; De Jonckheere, C.; Raus, J. Immune disturbances during major depression: Upregulated expression of interleukin-2 receptors. Neuropsychobiology 1990, 24, 115–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Lee, K.M.; Kim, Y.K. The role of IL-12 and TGF-beta1 in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2006, 6, 1298–1304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Myint, A.M.; Leonard, B.E.; Steinbusch, H.W.; Kim, Y.K. Th1, Th2, and Th3 cytokine alterations in major depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2005, 88, 167–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Chen, Y.; Jiang, T.; Chen, P.; Ouyang, J.; Xu, G.; Zeng, Z.; Sun, Y. Emerging tendency towards autoimmune process in major depressive patients: A novel insight from Th17 cells. Psychiatry Res. 2011, 188, 224–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Davami, M.H.; Baharlou, R.; Ahmadi Vasmehjani, A.; Ghanizadeh, A.; Keshtkar, M.; Dezhkam, I.; Atashzar, M.R. Elevated IL-17 and TGF-β Serum Levels: A Positive Correlation between T-helper 17 Cell-Related Pro-Inflammatory Responses with Major Depressive Disorder. Basic Clin. Neurosci. 2016, 7, 137–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Li, Y.; Xiao, B.; Qiu, W.; Yang, L.; Hu, B.; Tian, X.; Yang, H. Altered expression of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells and its 5-HT1a receptor in patients with major depression disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 124, 68–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Modabbernia, A.; Taslimi, S.; Brietzke, E.; Ashrafi, M. Cytokine alterations in bipolar disorder: A meta-analysis of 30 studies. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 74, 15–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Misiak, B.; Bartoli, F.; Carrà, G.; Małecka, M.; Samochowiec, J.; Jarosz, K.; Banik, A.; Stańczykiewicz, B. Chemokine alterations in bipolar disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behav. Immun. 2020, 88, 870–877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. do Prado, C.H.; Rizzo, L.B.; Wieck, A.; Lopes, R.P.; Teixeira, A.L.; Grassi-Oliveira, R.; Bauer, M.E. Reduced regulatory T cells are associated with higher levels of Th1/TH17 cytokines and activated MAPK in type 1 bipolar disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013, 38, 667–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Drexhage, R.C.; Hoogenboezem, T.H.; Versnel, M.A.; Berghout, A.; Nolen, W.A.; Drexhage, H.A. The activation of monocyte and T cell networks in patients with bipolar disorder. Brain Behav. Immun. 2011, 25, 1206–1213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Becking, K.; Haarman, B.C.M.; Grosse, L.; Nolen, W.A.; Claes, S.; Arolt, V.; Schoevers, R.A.; Drexhage, H.A. The circulating levels of CD4+ T helper cells are higher in bipolar disorder as compared to major depressive disorder. J. Neuroimmunol. 2018, 319, 28–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Barbosa, I.G.; Rocha, N.P.; Assis, F.; Vieira, É.L.; Soares, J.C.; Bauer, M.E.; Teixeira, A.L. Monocyte and lymphocyte activation in bipolar disorder: A new piece in the puzzle of immune dysfunction in mood disorders. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014, 18, pyu021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Gaynes, B.N.; Rush, A.J.; Trivedi, M.H.; Wisniewski, S.R.; Spencer, D.; Fava, M. The STAR*D study: Treating depression in the real world. Clevel. Clin. J. Med. 2008, 75, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Berlim, M.T.; Turecki, G. Definition, assessment, and staging of treatment-resistant refractory major depression: A review of current concepts and methods. Can. J. Psychiatry 2007, 52, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Poon, S.H.; Sim, K.; Baldessarini, R.J. Pharmacological approaches for treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2015, 13, 592–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Strawbridge, R.; Hodsoll, J.; Powell, T.R.; Hotopf, M.; Hatch, S.L.; Breen, G.; Cleare, A.J. Inflammatory profiles of severe treatment-resistant depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2019, 246, 42–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Yamasaki, K.; Hasegawa, T.; Takeda, M. Serum level of soluble interleukin 6 receptor is a useful biomarker for identification of treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacol. Rep. 2020, 40, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Sowa-Kućma, M.; Styczeń, K.; Siwek, M.; Misztak, P.; Nowak, R.J.; Dudek, D.; Rybakowski, J.K.; Nowak, G.; Maes, M. Lipid Peroxidation and Immune Biomarkers Are Associated with Major Depression and Its Phenotypes, Including Treatment-Resistant Depression and Melancholia. Neurotox. Res. 2018, 33, 448–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Wu, X.; Dai, B.; Yan, F.; Chen, Y.; Xu, Y.; Xia, Q.; Zhang, X. Serum Cortisol, Nesfatin-1, and IL-1β: Potential Diagnostic Biomarkers in Elderly Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression. Clin. Interv. Aging 2022, 17, 567–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Park, M.; Newman, L.E.; Gold, P.W.; Luckenbaugh, D.A.; Yuan, P.; Machado-Vieira, R.; Zarate, C.A., Jr. Change in cytokine levels is not associated with rapid antidepressant response to ketamine in treatment-resistant depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2017, 84, 113–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Murata, S.; Murphy, M.; Hoppensteadt, D.; Fareed, J.; Welborn, A.; Halaris, A. Effects of adjunctive inflammatory modulation on IL-1β in treatment resistant bipolar depression. Brain Behav. Immun. 2020, 87, 369–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kiraly, D.D.; Horn, S.R.; Van Dam, N.T.; Costi, S.; Schwartz, J.; Kim-Schulze, S.; Patel, M.; Hodes, G.E.; Russo, S.J.; Merad, M.; et al. Altered peripheral immune profiles in treatment-resistant depression: Response to ketamine and prediction of treatment outcome. Transl. Psychiatry 2017, 7, e1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Furman, D.; Campisi, J.; Verdin, E.; Carrera-Bastos, P.; Targ, S.; Franceschi, C.; Ferrucci, L.; Gilroy, D.W.; Fasano, A.; Miller, G.W.; et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat. Med. 2019, 25, 1822–1832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Diez-Ruiz, A.; Tilz, G.P.; Zangerle, R.; Baier-Bitterlich, G.; Wachter, H.; Fuchs, D. Soluble receptors for tumour necrosis factor in clinical laboratory diagnosis. Eur. J. Haematol. 1995, 54, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Eley, B.S.; Batty, D.W. The basic immunology of tuberculosis. In Tuberculosis a Comprehensive Clinical Reference; Schaaf, H.S., Zumla, A.I., Eds.; Elsevier Health Sciences: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2009; pp. 75–86. [Google Scholar]
  45. Cosma, N.C.; Üsekes, B.; Otto, L.R.; Gerike, S.; Heuser, I.; Regen, F.; Hellmann-Regen, J. M1/M2 polarization in major depressive disorder: Disentangling state from trait effects in an individualized cell-culture-based approach. Brain Behav. Immun. 2021, 94, 185–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Ehrlich, L.C.; Hu, S.; Sheng, W.S.; Sutton, R.L.; Rockswold, G.L.; Peterson, P.K.; Chao, C.C. Cytokine regulation of human microglial cell IL-8 production. J. Immunol. 1998, 160, 1944–1948. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  47. Taub, D.D.; Anver, M.; Oppenheim, J.J.; Longo, D.L.; Murphy, W.J. T lymphocyte recruitment by interleukin-8 (IL-8). IL-8-induced degranulation of neutrophils releases potent chemoattractants for human T lymphocytes both in vitro and in vivo. J. Clin. Investig. 1996, 97, 1931–1941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Kofod, J.; Elfving, B.; Nielsen, E.H.; Mors, O.; Köhler-Forsberg, O. Depression and inflammation: Correlation between changes in inflammatory markers with antidepressant response and long-term prognosis. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022, 54, 116–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Huet, L.; Delgado, I.; Dexpert, S.; Sauvant, J.; Aouizerate, B.; Beau, C.; Forestier, D.; Ledaguenel, P.; Magne, E.; Capuron, L. Relationship between body mass index and neuropsychiatric symptoms: Evidence and inflammatory correlates. Brain Behav. Immun. 2021, 94, 104–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Berlin, I.; Lavergne, F. Relationship between body-mass index and depressive symptoms in patients with major depression. Eur. Psychiatry 2003, 18, 85–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Yu, J.Y.; Choi, W.J.; Lee, H.S.; Lee, J.W. Relationship between inflammatory markers and visceral obesity in obese and overweight Korean adults: An observational study. Medicine 2019, 98, e14740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Cibrián, D.; Sánchez-Madrid, F. CD69: From activation marker to metabolic gatekeeper. Eur. J. Immunol. 2017, 47, 946–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Du, J.; Wei, L.; Li, G.; Hua, M.; Sun, Y.; Wang, D.; Han, K.; Yan, Y.; Song, C.; Song, R.; et al. Persistent High Percentage of HLA-DR+CD38high CD8+ T Cells Associated with Immune Disorder and Disease Severity of COVID-19. Front. Immunol. 2021, 12, 735125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ijms 24 00479 g001 550
Figure 1. Cytometric analysis of T-cell subpopulations. Lymphocytes were selected based on forward- and side-scatter characteristics (A). Then, T cells were identified based on their positivity for the CD3 antigen (B). Next, helper T cells were identified based on the expression of the CD4 antigen and cytotoxic T cells based on CD8 expression (C). Finally, subpopulations expressing different activation antigens, e.g., the CD25 antigen, were identified. Exemplary dot plots with CD4+CD25+ cells from a healthy donor (D) and from a TRD patient (E).
Figure 1. Cytometric analysis of T-cell subpopulations. Lymphocytes were selected based on forward- and side-scatter characteristics (A). Then, T cells were identified based on their positivity for the CD3 antigen (B). Next, helper T cells were identified based on the expression of the CD4 antigen and cytotoxic T cells based on CD8 expression (C). Finally, subpopulations expressing different activation antigens, e.g., the CD25 antigen, were identified. Exemplary dot plots with CD4+CD25+ cells from a healthy donor (D) and from a TRD patient (E).
Ijms 24 00479 g001
Ijms 24 00479 g002 550
Figure 2. Comparison of percentage of CD4+CD25+ cells (A) and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (B) in TRD patients and healthy people. The line represents the median according to two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Figure 2. Comparison of percentage of CD4+CD25+ cells (A) and CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (B) in TRD patients and healthy people. The line represents the median according to two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Ijms 24 00479 g002
Ijms 24 00479 g003 550
Figure 3. Comparison of serum concentrations of IL-12p70 (A), TNF-α (B), and IL-8 (C) between TRD patients and healthy people. The line represents the median according to two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test; * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.0001.
Figure 3. Comparison of serum concentrations of IL-12p70 (A), TNF-α (B), and IL-8 (C) between TRD patients and healthy people. The line represents the median according to two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test; * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.0001.
Ijms 24 00479 g003
Ijms 24 00479 g004 550
Figure 4. ROC curve for IL-8 in TRD patients.
Figure 4. ROC curve for IL-8 in TRD patients.
Ijms 24 00479 g004
Ijms 24 00479 g005 550
Figure 5. Flow chart of the study methodology.
Figure 5. Flow chart of the study methodology.
Ijms 24 00479 g005
Table
Table 1. Basic characteristics of study participants.
Table 1. Basic characteristics of study participants.
HC
(n = 13)		TRD
(n = 20)		p Value
Sex (male/female)7/69/110.728
Age (years)51 ± 17.6347.50 ± 19.030.509
BMI (kg/m2)24.47 ± 5.34 28.24 ± 6.270.115
Length of current episode (weeks)n.a.38 ± 6.08n.a.
MADRSn.a.30.2 ± 1.49n.a.
Medication *
SSRIsn.a.5n.a.
SNRIsn.a.7n.a.
SARIsn.a.2n.a.
NaSSAsn.a.6n.a.
TCAsn.a.2n.a.
Atypical antipsychoticsn.a.10n.a.
Antiepileptic drugsn.a.5n.a.
Low-potency antipsychoticsn.a.4n.a.
Lithiumn.a.6n.a.
Data are shown as mean results with standard deviation according to unpaired t-test. HC—healthy control, TRD—treatment-resistant depression, BMI—body mass index, SSRIs—serotonin reuptake inhibitors, SNRIs—serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, SARIs—serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors, NaSSAs—noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants, TCAs—tricyclic antidepressants. * Please note that some patients received more than one medication.
Table
Table 2. Comparison of T-cell subpopulations and cytokine levels between TRD patients and healthy people.
Table 2. Comparison of T-cell subpopulations and cytokine levels between TRD patients and healthy people.
HCTRDp Value
CD3+ (%)75.66 (62.2; 80.82)74.35 (43.3; 83.6)0.407
CD3+CD4+ cells (%)61.4 (44.54; 76.88)67 (48.8; 82.5)0.286
CD3+CD8+ cells (%)32.8 (17.01; 48)32.65 (13.2; 48.5)0.630
CD4+/CD8+ ratio1.95 (1.08; 3.95)2.05 (1.03; 6.25)0.964
CD3+CD4+ CD28+ cells (%)59.02 (38.98; 69.81)60 (36.7; 82.1)0.434
CD3+CD4+CD25+ cells (%)13.16 (5.08; 24.3)6.99 (1.42; 43.6)0.006
CD3+CD4+CD69+ cells (%)0.63 (0.04; 12.5)0.4 (0.03; 20)0.242
CD3+CD4+CD95+ cells (%)35.8 (18.3; 53.33)29.1 (17; 45.8)0.080
CD3+CD4+HLA-DR+ cells (%)1.68 (0.44; 7.18)1.11 (0.09; 20.5)0.715
CD3+CD8+CD28+ cells (%)17.71 (9.59; 28.1)18.95 (11.2; 35.3)0.377
CD3+CD8+CD25+ cells (%)0.64 (0.06; 4.84)0.39 (0.06; 3.82)0.191
CD3+CD8+CD69+ cells (%)0.44 (0.07; 2.92)0.45 (0.01; 2.44)0.805
CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (%)30.3 (14.23; 48.56)18.2 (9.11; 35.1)0.024
CD3+CD8+HLA-DR+ cells (%)2.79 (0.92; 13.5)8.8 (0.57; 15.9)0.059
IL-12p70 (pg/mL)2.65 (0; 12.74)0 (0; 4.7)0.001
TNF-α (pg/mL)1.2 (0; 4.36)0 (0; 62.8)0.025
IL-10 (pg/mL)2.7 (0; 6.15)1.8 (0; 5.6)0.153
IL-6 (pg/mL)2.89 (0; 22.57)2.8 (0; 110.4)0.726
IL-1β (pg/mL)2.26 (0; 18.3)0.7 (0.0; 12.6)0.133
IL-8 (pg/mL)11.33 (5.5; 20.2)185.9 (8.1; 4660)<0.0001
Data are presented as median with minimum and maximum results according to two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test. The results in bold are statistically significant at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 3. Correlations between current episode length and immune parameters.
Table 3. Correlations between current episode length and immune parameters.
rp Value
CD3+ (%)−0.1600.500
CD3+CD4+ cells (%)0.6200.004
CD3+CD8+ cells (%)−0.5990.005
CD4+/CD8+ ratio0.6040.005
CD3+CD4+CD28+ cells (%)0.3640.115
CD3+CD4+CD25+ cells (%)0.0070.977
CD3+CD4+CD69+ cells (%)0.3030.222
CD3+CD4+CD95+ cells (%)0.4820.052
CD3+CD4+HLA-DR+ cells (%)0.2300.359
CD3+CD8+ CD28+ cells (%)−0.3580.121
CD3+CD8+CD25+ cells (%)−0.0520.826
CD3+CD8+CD69+ cells (%)0.0400.875
CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (%)−0.2490.332
CD3+CD8+HLA-DR+ cells (%)−0.1020,686
IL-12p70 (pg/mL)0.2080.394
TNF-α (pg/mL)0.1270.605
IL-10 (pg/mL)−0.2730.259
IL-6 (pg/mL)0.1420.562
IL-1β (pg/mL)0.0580.815
IL-8 (pg/mL)−0.0310.901
Two-tailed Spearman rank correlation test. The results in bold are statistically significant at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 4. Correlations between immunological parameters in TRD patients.
Table 4. Correlations between immunological parameters in TRD patients.
IL-12p70 (pg/mL)TNF-α (pg/mL)IL-10 (pg/mL)IL-6 (pg/mL)IL-1β (pg/mL)IL-8 (pg/mL)
CD3+ (%)−0.195−0.2330.218−0.0450.061−0.168
CD3+CD4+ cells (%)−0.0060.049−0.4730.0910.0720.226
CD3+CD8+ cells (%)0.040−0.030.468−0.087−0.037−0.242
CD4+/CD8+ ratio−0.0230.039−0.4700.0920.0540.234
CD3+CD4+CD28+ cells (%)0.168−0.089−0.3120.1330.2140.135
CD3+CD4+CD25+ cells (%)0.3960.0130.2360.2580.5730.363
CD3+CD4+CD69+ cells (%)0.4010.4700.0460.3950.5920.564
CD3+CD4+CD95+ cells (%)−0.064−0.029−0.3040.2720.139−0.085
CD3+CD4+HLA-DR+ cells (%)−0.0660.119−0.3780.2190.4160.544
CD3+CD8+CD28+ cells (%)0.295−0.0560.190−0.1720.236−0.188
CD3+CD8+CD25+ cells (%)0.336−0.0180.2420.2360.301−0.182
CD3+CD8+CD69+ cells (%)−0.1040.0400.1650.0880.1240.239
CD3+CD8+CD95+ cells (%)0.2240.1320.5790.5730.3270.003
CD3+CD8+HLA-DR+ cells (%)0.075−0.072−0.183−0.0220.2480.088
Two-tailed Spearman rank correlation test. The results in bold are statistically significant at p < 0.05.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Szałach, Ł.P.; Cubała, W.J.; Lisowska, K.A. Changes in T-Cell Subpopulations and Cytokine Levels in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression—A Preliminary Study. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010479

AMA Style

Szałach ŁP, Cubała WJ, Lisowska KA. Changes in T-Cell Subpopulations and Cytokine Levels in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression—A Preliminary Study. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(1):479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010479

Chicago/Turabian Style

Szałach, Łukasz Piotr, Wiesław Jerzy Cubała, and Katarzyna Aleksandra Lisowska. 2023. "Changes in T-Cell Subpopulations and Cytokine Levels in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression—A Preliminary Study" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 1: 479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010479

APA Style

Szałach, Ł. P., Cubała, W. J., & Lisowska, K. A. (2023). Changes in T-Cell Subpopulations and Cytokine Levels in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Depression—A Preliminary Study. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(1), 479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010479

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop