Autophagy and the Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Colonic Cells: Implications for Colorectal Neoplasia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Autophagy in Colorectal Cancer—Clinical Implications
3. IGF Signaling and Colorectal Cancer—A Brief Summary
4. Role of IGF Signaling in Regulation of Autophagy
5. Autophagy in Normal Large Intestine Epithelial Cells—Implication for Colorectal Neoplasia
5.1. Colonocytes
5.1.1. Autophagy in Colonocytes
5.1.2. Colonocytes and IGF-1 System
5.2. Goblet Cells
5.2.1. Autophagy in Goblet Cells
5.2.2. Goblet Cells and IGF-1 System
5.3. Intestinal Stem Cells (ISCs)
5.3.1. Autophagy in Intestinal Stem Cells
5.3.2. Intestinal Stem Cells and IGF System
5.4. Paneth Cells and Paneth-like Cells
5.4.1. Autophagy in Paneth Cells
5.4.2. Paneth-like Cells and IGF System
6. Cells of the Tumor Microenvironment
6.1. Epithelial Colorectal Cancer Cells (Epithelial CRC Cells)
IGF Signaling in Autophagy of CRC Cells
6.2. Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells
6.2.1. Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells and Autophagy
6.2.2. Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells and IGF System
6.3. Cancer-Associated Adipocytes (CAAs)
6.4. Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells (TIICs)
6.5. Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs)
7. Autophagy and IGF System: Implications for Therapy in CRC
8. Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AKT/PKB | serine/threonine kinase/protein kinase B |
AMBRA1 | Autophagy and beclin 1 regulator 1 |
AMPK | 5′ Adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase |
APC | Adenomatous polyposis coli |
ATG | Autophagy-related genes or proteins |
BAX | Bcl-2-associated X protein |
BECN1 | Beclin1, a mammalian ortholog of the yeast Atg6 |
BEST4 | Bestrophin 4 |
BNIP3 | Bcl-2-interacting protein 3 |
BNIP3L | Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19kDa protein-interacting protein 3-like |
BRAF | Proto-oncogene B-Raf; encodes protein called B-Raf |
CCL2/MCP-1 | Chemokine (C-C Motif) ligand 2/monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 |
CCL8/MCP-2 | Chemokine (C-C Motif) ligand 8/monocyte chemoattractant protein 2 |
C/E/I/M(SCs) | Cancer/embryonic/intestinal/mesenchymal stem cells |
CD | Crohn’s disease |
CI | Confidence interval |
CIMP | CpG island methylator phenotype |
CIN | Chromosomal instability |
c-MET | Tyrosine-protein kinase Met/hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR) |
c-Myc | Proto-oncogene protein; transcription factor |
CQ | Chloroquine |
CRC | Colorectal cancer |
CSCs | Cancer stem cells |
c-Src | Src proto-oncogene, non-receptor tyrosine kinase |
DECP1 | Double FYVE-containing protein 1 or ZFYVE1 protein |
EGF/EGFR | Epidermal growth factor/EGF receptor (HER1 in humans) |
eIF4A3 | Eukaryotic initiation factor 4A-III |
ERK1/2 | Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 |
FAK | Focal adhesion kinase or protein tyrosine kinase 2 |
FOXO | Forkhead box protein class O |
GAPs | Goblet cell-associated antigen passage |
GH/GH-R | Growth hormone/GH-receptor |
GLP-2 | Glucagon-like peptide 2 |
GNPTAB | N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase subunits alpha/beta |
GSK-3β | Glycogen synthase kinase-3β |
HIF-1 | Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 |
IBD | Inflammatory bowel diseases |
IECs | Intestinal epithelial cells |
IGF-1, -2 | Insulin growth factor 1, -2 |
IGF-1R, -2R | IGF receptor type I, type II |
IGF-BPs | IGF-binding proteins |
IR-A | Isoform A of the insulin receptor |
IRS-1/2 | Insulin receptor substrate 1/2 |
JAK | Janus kinase |
KLF4 | Gut-enriched Kruppel-like factor 4; zinc-finger transcription factor |
KRAS | Kirsten rat sarcoma virus; encodes protein called K-Ras |
LAMP2 | Lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 |
(M)LC3B/MAP2 | Microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3B/protein 2 |
LKB1 | Liver kinase B1; serine/threonine protein kinase (STK11) |
lncRNAs | Long non-coding RNAs |
LOI | Loss of imprinting |
MAPK | Mitogen-activated protein kinase |
MEFs | Mouse embryonic fibroblasts |
MEK1/2 | Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP2K, MEK, MAPKK) |
MetS | Metabolic syndrome |
MOI | Maintenance of imprinting |
MSI-H | High microsatellite instability |
MSS | Microsatellite stable |
mTORC1/2 | Mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1/complex 2 |
NADPH | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase |
NANOG | Homebox protein, transcription factor |
NF-κB | Nuclear factor-kappa B |
NRF-1/2 | Nuclear respiratory factor 1/2 |
OCT-4 | Octamer-binding transcription factor 4 |
OS | Overall survival |
PARP1 | Poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase 1 |
PGDF | Platelet-derived growth factor |
PI3K | Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase |
PIK3CA | Gene encoding phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha |
PINK1 | PTEN-induced kinase 1 |
PLCs | Paneth-like cells |
PKCα/PRKCA | Protein kinase Cα |
PPAR | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor |
PSCs | Pluripotent stem cells |
PTEN | Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten |
Raf-1 | Proto-oncogene serine/threonine protein kinase |
Raptor | Regulatory-associated protein of mTOR |
RAS | Oncogene “Rat sarcoma virus” from three Ras genes: HRAS, KRAS and NRAS |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SATB2 | SATB homeobox 2; DNA-binding protein |
SGK-1 | Serine/threonine-protein kinase/serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 |
SHC | SHC-transforming protein 1 encoded by the SHC gene |
SIRT1 | NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin 1, a mammalian homologue of silent information regulator 2 of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae |
SLITs/ROBOs | SLIT glycoproteins and their roundabout receptors |
SNP | Single nucleotide polymorphism |
SNX9, -18,-33 | Sorting nexin9, -18, -33 |
SOD3 | Superoxide dismutase 3 |
SOX2 | Transcription factor 2, known also as sex-determining region Y (SRY)-box 2 |
STAT3 | Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 |
TCGA | The cancer genome atlas |
TGF-α, β | Tumor growth factor α, β |
TLRs | Toll-like receptors |
TME | Tumor microenvironment |
TP53 | Tumor gene/protein 53 |
UC | Ulcerative colitis |
ULK1/2 | Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase |
uPA/uPAR | Urokinase-type plasminogen activator/receptor |
Wnt | Gene wingless + integrated or int-1 |
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Cell Type | Autophagy | |
---|---|---|
Normal Function | Effects of Functional Impairments | |
Absorptive cell (colonocyte) |
|
|
Goblet cell |
|
|
Intestinal (colonic) stem cell |
|
|
Paneth-like cell |
|
|
Cell Type | Paracrine/Autocrine IGF-1 Signaling | |
---|---|---|
Normal Function | Effects of Functional Impairments | |
Absorptive cell (colonocyte) |
|
|
Goblet cell |
|
|
Intestinal (colonic) stem cell |
|
|
Paneth-like cell |
|
|
Autophagic Activity | Agents | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|
Inducers | Cetuximab | Dual inhibitor of EGFR and class I PI3K/AKTt/mTOR | [248] |
Adiponectin | Activator of AMPKα and PPARα and inhibitor of IGF-1/PI3K/AKT/mTOR | [200] | |
JA | Increase expression of class III PI3K and Atg5 | [249] | |
SAL B | Inhibitor of AKT/mTOR | [243] | |
Salidroside | Inhibitor of PI3K/AKT/mTOR | [244] | |
LCD | Activator of AMPK and inhibitor of AKT/mTOR | [245] | |
Metformin | Activator of AMPK and inhibitor of mTOR and IGF-1R | [247] | |
Calycosin | Activator of SIRT1/AMPK and inhibitor of AKT/mTOR | [88] | |
Aspirin | Inhibitor of PI3K/AKT/Raptor | [250] | |
CJ | Activator of AMPK and inhibitor of PI3K/AKT/mTOR | [246] | |
rMV-Hu191 | Regulator of PI3K/AKT | [251] | |
W922 | Inhibitor of PI3K/AKT/mTOR | [252] | |
Inhibitors | 3-MA | Inhibitor of class III PI3K | [191,256] |
Wortmannin | Inhibitor of PI3K | [191,254] | |
IGF-1 | Activator of AKT/mTOR in 5-FU-resistant cells | [202] | |
RA-XII | Regulator of mTOR and NF-κB | [257] |
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Kasprzak, A. Autophagy and the Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Colonic Cells: Implications for Colorectal Neoplasia. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 3665. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043665
Kasprzak A. Autophagy and the Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Colonic Cells: Implications for Colorectal Neoplasia. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(4):3665. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043665
Chicago/Turabian StyleKasprzak, Aldona. 2023. "Autophagy and the Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Colonic Cells: Implications for Colorectal Neoplasia" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 4: 3665. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043665