A Comprehensive Review of the Triangular Relationship among Diet–Gut Microbiota–Inflammation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Gut Microbiome: General Concepts of Diet and Gut Microbiota
3. Diet and Gut Microbiota
3.1. Subsection Role of Diet in Shaping Gut Microbiota
3.2. Effects of Dietary Patterns on Gut Microbiota
3.2.1. Mediterranean Diet
3.2.2. Western Diet
3.2.3. Vegetarian Diet
Dietary Pattern | Key Components | Impact on Gut Microbiome | Health Outcome | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
MD |
|
| Reduced risk of depression:
| [2,33,34,36,39] |
WD |
|
| Increased risk of depression:
| [2,9,45,47,49,51] |
Vegetarian |
|
| Reduced risk of depression:
| [11,49,55,57,58] |
3.3. Impact of Macronutrients on Gut Microbiota Composition
3.3.1. Carbohydrates
3.3.2. Fat
3.3.3. Proteins
3.4. Impact of Micronutrients and Phytochemicals on Gut Microbiota Composition
3.4.1. Vitamins
3.4.2. Minerals
Nutrients | Dose and Treatment Duration/Test Model | Potentially Beneficial Microbiota | Potentially Detrimental Microbiota | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary carbohydrates | Model: almond-based low carbohydrate diet as reference/clinical trials (45 T2DM patients) Duration: 3 months Age: >18 years Location: Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China | ↑ Roseburia sp. ↑ Ruminococcus ↑ Eubacterium | [92] | |
Model: oligofructose-enriched inulin (Synergy 1) (10 g/day), n = 18 and placebo (maltodextrin; 7 g/day), n = 16 as reference/clinical trials (34 pediatric celiac disease patients, 62% females, on a gluten-free diet) Duration: 3 months Age: mean age 10 years Location: University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland | ↑ Bifidobacterium sp. | [93] | ||
Dietary fat | Model: HFD (60% fat) and baseline as reference/mice model, n = 8 Duration: 14 weeks Age: 4 to 5 weeks Location: Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China | ↓ Bifidobacterium sp. ↓ Lactobacillus sp. ↓ Faecalibaculum, sp. ↓ Akkermansia. sp. | ↑ Desulfovibrionaceae sp. ↑ Mucispirillum sp. | [94] |
Model: fat diet (20%) and the baseline as reference/clinical trial (52% women) n = 217 Duration: 6 months Age: 18 to 35 years Location: Army General Hospital, north China and Zhejiang University, south China | ↑ Fecalibacterium sp. ↑ Parabacteroides sp. | [75] | ||
Model: moderate-fat diet (30%) and the baseline as reference/clinical trial (52% women) n = 217 Duration: 6 months Age: 18 to 35 years Location: Army General Hospital, north China and Zhejiang University, south China | ↓ F/B | [75] | ||
Model: HFD (40%) and the baseline as reference/clinical trial (52% women) n = 217 Duration: 6 months Age: 18 to 35 years Location: Army General Hospital, north China and Zhejiang University, south China | ↓ F/B ↓ Fecalibacterium sp. | ↑ Alistipes sp. ↑ Bacteroides sp. | [75] | |
Dietary protein | Model: high-animal-protein-based diet (514 g/kg) and baseline as reference/mice model Duration: 3 weeks Age: shortly after weaning Location: Czech academy of sciences, Prague | ↑ Escherichia sp. ↑ Staphylococcus sp. ↑ Enterococcus sp. | [95] | |
Model: plant-protein-based control diet (176 g/kg) and baseline as reference/mice model Duration: 3 weeks Age: shortly after weaning Location: Czech academy of sciences, Prague | ↑ Enterococcus sp. | [95] | ||
Model: C57BL/6 DSS-treated mice with isocaloric diets with 53% protein and the diets with 30% protein as reference/DDS-treated mice model, n = 132 Duration: 3 days Age: 7 weeks Location: Université Paris-Saclay, France | ↑ Desulfovibrio sp. ↑ Bacteroides sp. | ↑ Alloprevotella sp. ↑ Haemophilus sp. ↑ Klebsiella sp. | [96] | |
Minerals | Model: supplementation of 1000 mg calcium + 1000 mg phosphorus/day and the supplementation of 1000 mg phosphorus/day as reference/clinical trials (men n = 30, women n = 32), Duration: 8 weeks Age: 29 ± 7 years Location: University Jena, Germany | ↑ Clostridium sp. | [97] | |
Model: high-iron-fortified formula (6.4 mg Fe/day) and iron drops (no-added-iron formula with liquid ferrous sulfate supplementation (5.7 mg Fe/day) as reference/clinical trials, n = 53 Duration: 45 days Age: 6 months Location: Sweden | ↑ Lactobacillus sp. | ↓ Ruminococcus sp. | [98] | |
Model: 18 μg/day iodine and control group as reference/mice model, n = 24 Duration: 8 weeks Age: 3 weeks Location: Ningbo University, China | ↑ Bifidobacterium sp. ↑ Lactobacillus sp. ↑ Fecalibacterium sp. ↑ Allobaculum sp. ↑ Roseburia sp. | [91] | ||
Vitamins | Model: one dose of 50,000 IU vitamin A and placebo as reference/clinical trial, Duration: 15 weeks Age: 48 h of birth for IU treatment, placebo–early (6–15 week) or late (2 year) infancy Location: Dhaka, Bangladesh | ↑ Bifidobacterium sp. ↑ Akkermansia sp. | [99] | |
Model: a dose of 40,000 IU vitamin D once weekly using two capsules of 20,000 IU (Plenachol, Encap) and baseline as reference/clinical trial (patients with vitamin D deficiency: 25[OH] vitamin D < 50 nmol/L) Duration: 1 month Age: NA Location: St Mark’s Hospital, London, UK | ↑ Enterobacteria sp. | [100] | ||
Polyphenols | Model: HFD with blackberry anthocyanin rich extract (25 mg/kg body weight per day) and HFD as reference/rat model n = 6 Duration: 17 weeks Age: NA Location: NA | ↑ Akkermansia sp. | ↓ Ruminococcus sp. | [101] |
Model: tart cherry juice consumption (8 oz/day) and baseline as reference/clinical trials, n = 10 Duration: 5 days Age: 23–30 years Location: NA | ↑ Bifidobacterium sp. ↑ Prevotella sp. ↑ Bacteroides sp. | ↓ Ruminococcus sp. | [102] | |
Model: different concentrations of grape phenolic compounds (2.5 and 5 mg/kg/day diluted in 0.1% Dimethyl Sulfoxide) and the control group (0.1% Dimethyl Sulfoxide alone) as reference/rat, n = 6 Duration: 2 months Age: NA Location: NA | ↑ Bifidobacterium sp. | [103] |
3.5. Impact of Specific Dietary Components on Gut Microbiota Composition
3.5.1. Prebiotics
3.5.2. Probiotics
3.5.3. Polyphenols
3.5.4. Resistant Starch
4. Gut Microbiota and Inflammation
4.1. Mechanisms of Gut Microbiota–Immune System Interaction
4.2. Gut Barrier Function and Permeability
4.3. Production of Metabolites and Their Effects on Inflammation
4.3.1. Short-Chain Fatty Acids
SCFA | Receptor | Pathway/Reaction | Producers | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Acetate | GPR43 | Via acetyl-CoA | Akkermansia municuphila Bacteroides spp. Bifidobacterium spp. Prevotella spp. Ruminococcus spp. | [148] |
Wood-Ljungdahl pathway | Blautia hydrogenotrophica Clostridium spp. Streptococcus spp. | [136] | ||
Propionate | GPR43 GPR41 | Succinate pathway | Bacteroides spp. Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens Dialister spp. Veillonella spp. | [148] |
Acrylate pathway | Megasphaera elsdenii Coprococcus catus | [136] | ||
Propanediol pathway | Salmonella spp. Roseburia inulinivorans Ruminococcus obeum | [136] | ||
Butyrate | GPR41 GPR109A | Butyrate kinase route | Coprococcus comes Coprococcus eutactus | [136] |
Bytyryl-CoA | Coprococcus catus Eubacterium rectale Roseburia spp. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii | [135,136] |
4.3.2. Bile Acids
4.3.3. Tryptophan
4.4. Dysbiosis and Inflammatory Conditions
4.5. Association between Gut Microbiota and Inflammatory Diseases
4.5.1. Inflammatory Bowel Disease
4.5.2. Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome
4.5.3. Rheumatoid Arthritis
4.5.4. Cardiovascular Diseases
4.5.5. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
4.5.6. Allergic Diseases
5. Diet and Inflammation
6. The Interconnected Triangle: Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Inflammation
6.1. Interconnection of Diet and Gut Microbiota
6.2. Interconnection of Diet and Inflammation
6.3. Interconnection between Gut Microbiota and Inflammation
6.4. Role of the Host in the Triangular Relationship
6.5. Impact of Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Inflammation on the Brain and Behavior
7. Therapeutic Implications
8. Research Gaps and Future Research Directions
9. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Randeni, N.; Bordiga, M.; Xu, B. A Comprehensive Review of the Triangular Relationship among Diet–Gut Microbiota–Inflammation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 9366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179366
Randeni N, Bordiga M, Xu B. A Comprehensive Review of the Triangular Relationship among Diet–Gut Microbiota–Inflammation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(17):9366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179366
Chicago/Turabian StyleRandeni, Nidesha, Matteo Bordiga, and Baojun Xu. 2024. "A Comprehensive Review of the Triangular Relationship among Diet–Gut Microbiota–Inflammation" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 17: 9366. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179366