Fast Multi-UAV Path Planning for Optimal Area Coverage in Aerial Sensing Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Problem Definition
3. Methodology
3.1. Architecture Proposal
3.2. Multi-UAV CPP Algorithm
3.2.1. Area Decomposition
3.2.2. Multi-UAV Routing
Algorithm 1: BINPAT Algorithm |
Algorithm 2: CBinPack Algorithm |
3.2.3. Routing Optimization
3.3. Software Implementation
3.4. Hardware Implementation
3.5. Transformation between Relative and Absolute Coordinates
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Algorithm Validation
4.2. Simulation Results
4.3. Real-Flight Test Results
5. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
UAV | Unmanned Aerial Vehicle |
UAS | Unmanned Aerial System |
H2020 | Horizon 2020 |
RTL | Return to Launch Point |
GCS | Ground Control Station |
GUI | Graphical User Interface |
BINPAT | Bin Packing Trajectory Planner |
CBinPack | Custom Bin Packing Algorithm |
POWELL-BINPAT | Powell Optimized Bin Packing Trajectory Planner |
FCU | Flight Control Unit |
FR | First Responder |
FASTER | First Responder Advanced Technologies for Safe and Efficient Emergency Response |
PBD | Power Distribution Board |
ESC | Electronic Speed Controllers |
CPP | Coverage Path Planning |
GNSS | Global Navigation Satellite System |
IP | Internet Protocol |
Appendix A. Simulation Results
Appendix A.1. Time Results for Short-Track Scenario
SIMPLE-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 318.00 | 330.00 | 344.00 | 266.00 | 277.00 | 287.00 |
UAV2 | 331.00 | 345.00 | 356.00 | 268.00 | 280.00 | 293.00 |
UAV3 | 312.00 | 326.00 | 337.00 | 226.00 | 237.00 | 248.00 |
Max | 331.00 | 345.00 | 356.00 | 268.00 | 280.00 | 293.00 |
Av | 320.33 | 333.67 | 345.67 | 253.33 | 264.67 | 276.00 |
SD | 9.71 | 10.02 | 9.61 | 23.69 | 24.01 | 24.43 |
CV | 3.11 | 3.07 | 2.85 | 10.48 | 10.13 | 9.85 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 214.00 | 258.00 | 280.00 | 383.00 | 385.00 | 426.00 |
UAV2 | 232.00 | 294.00 | 313.00 | 396.00 | 399.00 | 412.00 |
UAV3 | 244.00 | 261.00 | 272.00 | 410.00 | 411.00 | 396.00 |
Max | 244.00 | 294.00 | 313.00 | 410.00 | 411.00 | 426.00 |
Av | 230.00 | 271.00 | 288.33 | 396.33 | 398.33 | 411.33 |
SD | 15.10 | 19.97 | 21.73 | 13.50 | 13.01 | 15.01 |
CV | 6.19 | 7.65 | 7.99 | 3.29 | 3.17 | 3.79 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
POWELL-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 243.00 | 262.00 | 266.00 | 397.00 | 385.00 | 401.00 |
UAV2 | 258.00 | 284.00 | 286.00 | 400.00 | 413.00 | 426.00 |
UAV3 | 245.00 | 280.00 | 273.00 | 373.00 | 401.00 | 412.00 |
Max | 258.00 | 284.00 | 286.00 | 400.00 | 413.00 | 426.00 |
Av | 248.67 | 275.33 | 275.00 | 390.00 | 399.67 | 413.00 |
SD | 8.14 | 11.72 | 10.15 | 14.80 | 14.05 | 12.53 |
CV | 3.32 | 4.19 | 3.72 | 3.97 | 3.50 | 3.04 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
SIMPLE-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 225.00 | 236.00 | 249.00 | 287.00 | 302.00 | 314.00 |
UAV2 | 232.00 | 247.00 | 259.00 | 283.00 | 302.00 | 308.00 |
UAV3 | 249.00 | 260.00 | 271.00 | 234.00 | 246.00 | 358.00 |
UAV4 | 222.00 | 233.00 | 245.00 | 259.00 | 271.00 | 284.00 |
UAV5 | 222.00 | 231.00 | 245.00 | 290.00 | 304.00 | 316.00 |
Max | 249.00 | 260.00 | 271.00 | 290.00 | 304.00 | 358.00 |
Av | 230.00 | 241.40 | 253.80 | 270.60 | 285.00 | 316.00 |
SD | 11.38 | 12.10 | 11.19 | 23.84 | 25.77 | 26.72 |
CV | 4.95 | 5.01 | 4.41 | 8.81 | 9.04 | 8.46 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 237.00 | 260.00 | 258.00 | 322.00 | 335.00 | 318.00 |
UAV2 | 204.00 | 231.00 | 231.00 | 319.00 | 332.00 | 350.00 |
UAV3 | 210.00 | 262.00 | 260.00 | 388.00 | 298.00 | 352.00 |
UAV4 | 229.00 | 233.00 | 233.00 | 380.00 | 295.00 | 312.00 |
UAV5 | 244.00 | 271.00 | 269.00 | 323.00 | 336.00 | 355.00 |
Max | 244.00 | 271.00 | 269.00 | 388.00 | 336.00 | 355.00 |
Av | 224.80 | 251.40 | 250.20 | 346.40 | 319.20 | 337.40 |
SD | 17.22 | 18.20 | 17.14 | 34.47 | 20.80 | 20.63 |
CV | 7.66 | 7.24 | 6.85 | 9.95 | 6.52 | 6.12 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
POWELL-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 228.00 | 254.00 | 251.00 | 289.00 | 303.00 | 311.00 |
UAV2 | 213.00 | 226.00 | 239.00 | 315.00 | 324.00 | 355.00 |
UAV3 | 237.00 | 242.00 | 266.00 | 304.00 | 319.00 | 329.00 |
UAV4 | 240.00 | 245.00 | 266.00 | 325.00 | 338.00 | 338.00 |
UAV5 | 246.00 | 257.00 | 273.00 | 327.00 | 339.00 | 351.00 |
Max | 246.00 | 257.00 | 273.00 | 327.00 | 339.00 | 355.00 |
Av | 232.80 | 244.80 | 259.00 | 312.00 | 324.60 | 336.80 |
SD | 12.83 | 12.19 | 13.77 | 15.78 | 14.88 | 17.75 |
CV | 5.51 | 4.98 | 5.32 | 5.06 | 4.58 | 5.27 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
Appendix A.2. Time Results for Long-Track Scenario
SIMPLE-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 817.00 | 870.00 | 985.00 | 606.00 | 693.00 | 680.00 |
UAV2 | 834.00 | 917.00 | 856.00 | 652.00 | 843.00 | 799.00 |
UAV3 | 749.00 | 1225.00 | 1050.00 | 567.00 | 759.00 | 832.00 |
Max | 834.00 | 1225.00 | 1050.00 | 652.00 | 843.00 | 832.00 |
Av | 800.00 | 1004.00 | 963.67 | 608.33 | 765.00 | 770.33 |
SD | 44.98 | 192.83 | 98.74 | 42.55 | 75.18 | 79.95 |
CV | 5.62 | 19.21 | 10.25 | 6.99 | 9.83 | 10.38 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 859.00 | 889.00 | 973.00 | 676.00 | 652.00 | 745.00 |
UAV2 | 891.00 | 973.00 | 1010.00 | 675.00 | 714.00 | 697.00 |
UAV3 | 915.00 | 986.00 | 946.00 | 696.00 | 763.00 | 633.00 |
Max | 915.00 | 986.00 | 1010.00 | 696.00 | 763.00 | 745.00 |
Av | 888.33 | 949.33 | 976.33 | 682.33 | 709.67 | 691.67 |
SD | 28.10 | 52.65 | 32.13 | 11.85 | 55.63 | 56.19 |
CV | 3.16 | 5.55 | 3.29 | 1.74 | 7.84 | 8.12 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 855.00 | 970.00 | 967.00 | 606.00 | 629.00 | 636.00 |
UAV2 | 894.00 | 938.00 | 961.00 | 671.00 | 692.00 | 700.00 |
UAV3 | 898.00 | 900.00 | 999.00 | 625.00 | 643.00 | 652.00 |
Max | 898.00 | 970.00 | 999.00 | 671.00 | 692.00 | 700.00 |
Av | 882.33 | 936.00 | 975.67 | 634.00 | 654.67 | 662.67 |
SD | 23.76 | 35.04 | 20.43 | 33.42 | 33.08 | 33.31 |
CV | 2.69 | 3.74 | 2.09 | 5.27 | 5.05 | 5.03 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
SIMPLE-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 579.00 | 637.00 | 682.00 | 494.00 | 653.00 | 596.00 |
UAV2 | 619.00 | 678.00 | 752.00 | 510.00 | 596.00 | 618.00 |
UAV3 | 583.00 | 644.00 | 686.00 | 461.00 | 542.00 | 547.00 |
UAV4 | 544.00 | 588.00 | 596.00 | 562.00 | 581.00 | 683.00 |
UAV5 | 685.00 | 727.00 | 801.00 | 551.00 | 639.00 | 673.00 |
Max | 685.00 | 727.00 | 801.00 | 562.00 | 653.00 | 683.00 |
Av | 602.00 | 654.80 | 703.40 | 515.60 | 602.20 | 623.40 |
SD | 53.46 | 51.59 | 77.75 | 41.49 | 44.85 | 56.19 |
CV | 8.88 | 7.88 | 11.05 | 8.05 | 7.45 | 9.01 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 614.00 | 675.00 | 737.00 | 460.00 | 525.00 | 555.00 |
UAV2 | 633.00 | 698.00 | 756.00 | 514.00 | 595.00 | 629.00 |
UAV3 | 577.00 | 690.00 | 698.00 | 462.00 | 549.00 | 558.00 |
UAV4 | 608.00 | 683.00 | 717.00 | 430.00 | 538.00 | 522.00 |
UAV5 | 672.00 | 720.00 | 806.00 | 488.00 | 576.00 | 584.00 |
Max | 672.00 | 720.00 | 806.00 | 514.00 | 595.00 | 629.00 |
Av | 620.80 | 693.20 | 742.80 | 470.80 | 556.60 | 569.60 |
SD | 35.00 | 17.22 | 41.46 | 31.70 | 28.52 | 39.84 |
CV | 5.64 | 2.48 | 5.58 | 6.73 | 5.12 | 6.99 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
POWELL-BINPAT | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
UAV1 | 560.00 | 634.00 | 675.00 | 489.00 | 556.00 | 591.00 |
UAV2 | 602.00 | 654.00 | 774.00 | 531.00 | 571.00 | 619.00 |
UAV3 | 614.00 | 720.00 | 704.00 | 501.00 | 528.00 | 579.00 |
UAV4 | 557.00 | 659.00 | 733.00 | 502.00 | 552.00 | 592.00 |
UAV5 | 645.00 | 709.00 | 789.00 | 532.00 | 582.00 | 627.00 |
Max | 645.00 | 720.00 | 789.00 | 532.00 | 582.00 | 627.00 |
Av | 595.60 | 675.20 | 735.00 | 511.00 | 557.80 | 601.60 |
SD | 37.34 | 37.28 | 47.44 | 19.40 | 20.52 | 20.39 |
CV | 6.27 | 5.52 | 6.45 | 3.80 | 3.68 | 3.39 |
Distance | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 |
Altitude | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 | 35.00 | 45.00 | 55.00 |
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Based Language | Role | Configuration |
---|---|---|
Qt C++ |
| C++ 11 Compiler qmake 3.0 |
Qt Meta Language (qml) |
| Qt Quick JavaScript |
Hyper Test Markup Language |
| HTML |
Brian Fox Unix Shell (Bash) |
|
Distance-Based Cost | |||
---|---|---|---|
UAV | Simple Back-and-Forth | Sampled Back-and-Forth | |
SIMPLE-BINPAT | BINPAT | POWELL-BINPAT | |
UAV 1 | 963.81 | 928.75 | 908.75 |
UAV 2 | 944.65 | 900.34 | 911.77 |
UAV 3 | 644.58 | 789.27 | 904.72 |
SD | 179.03 | 73.7 | 3.53 |
UAVs | SIMPLE-BINPAT | BINPAT | POWELL-BINPAT |
---|---|---|---|
2 | 0.000748 | 0.0021 | 0.296894 |
3 | 0.001474 | 0.002244 | 0.301134 |
4 | 0.001522 | 0.002756 | 0.512768 |
5 | 0.001961 | 0.003125 | 1.419654 |
6 | 0.003479 | 0.003365 | 1.853162 |
7 | 0.004275 | 0.003924 | 1.96757 |
Distance-Based Cost Results | ||
---|---|---|
UAV Number | BINPAT | POWELL-BINPAT |
UAV1 | 390.72 | 0 |
UAV2 | 401.93 | 370.73 |
UAV3 | 394.62 | 383.99 |
SIMULATION SCENARIO | ||
---|---|---|
Short Track | Long Track | |
SIMPLE-BINPAT | 300.42 | 795.58 |
BINPAT | 330.08 | 754.25 |
POWEL-BINPAT | 322.00 | 735.42 |
UAV | METHOD | ||
---|---|---|---|
SIMPLE-BINPAT | BINPAT | POWELL-BINPAT | |
UAV1 | 289.00 | 279.00 | 285.00 |
UAV2 | 305.00 | 298.00 | 282.00 |
UAV3 | 276.00 | 268.00 | 271.00 |
Max | 305.00 | 298.00 | 285.00 |
Av | 290.00 | 281.67 | 279.33 |
SD | 14.53 | 15.18 | 7.37 |
CV | 5.01 | 5.39 | 2.64 |
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Share and Cite
Luna, M.A.; Ale Isaac, M.S.; Ragab, A.R.; Campoy, P.; Flores Peña, P.; Molina, M. Fast Multi-UAV Path Planning for Optimal Area Coverage in Aerial Sensing Applications. Sensors 2022, 22, 2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062297
Luna MA, Ale Isaac MS, Ragab AR, Campoy P, Flores Peña P, Molina M. Fast Multi-UAV Path Planning for Optimal Area Coverage in Aerial Sensing Applications. Sensors. 2022; 22(6):2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062297
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuna, Marco Andrés, Mohammad Sadeq Ale Isaac, Ahmed Refaat Ragab, Pascual Campoy, Pablo Flores Peña, and Martin Molina. 2022. "Fast Multi-UAV Path Planning for Optimal Area Coverage in Aerial Sensing Applications" Sensors 22, no. 6: 2297. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062297