Figure 1.
Applications of radars in vehicles for adaptive cruise control (ACC), automatic emergency braking (AEB), left side (LS) and right side (RS) blind spot detection (BSD), collision mitigation (CM), cross traffic alerts (CTAs), forward collision warning (FCW), and lane change assistants (LCAs).
Figure 1.
Applications of radars in vehicles for adaptive cruise control (ACC), automatic emergency braking (AEB), left side (LS) and right side (RS) blind spot detection (BSD), collision mitigation (CM), cross traffic alerts (CTAs), forward collision warning (FCW), and lane change assistants (LCAs).
Figure 2.
Block diagram of a 77 GHz automotive radar with an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
Figure 2.
Block diagram of a 77 GHz automotive radar with an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
Figure 3.
Operational block diagram of 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Figure 3.
Operational block diagram of 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Figure 4.
Operational block diagram of an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
Figure 4.
Operational block diagram of an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
Figure 5.
Layout of the 77 GHz microstrip 90° hybrid coupler in ADS.
Figure 5.
Layout of the 77 GHz microstrip 90° hybrid coupler in ADS.
Figure 6.
(a) Topview and (b) isometric view of the 3D FEM simulation model of the 90° hybrid coupler in ADS.
Figure 6.
(a) Topview and (b) isometric view of the 3D FEM simulation model of the 90° hybrid coupler in ADS.
Figure 7.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the designed 90° hybrid coupler.
Figure 7.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the designed 90° hybrid coupler.
Figure 8.
Layout of the type-1 crossover in ADS.
Figure 8.
Layout of the type-1 crossover in ADS.
Figure 9.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the type-1 crossover.
Figure 9.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the type-1 crossover.
Figure 10.
Layout of the type-2 crossover in ADS.
Figure 10.
Layout of the type-2 crossover in ADS.
Figure 11.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results of the type-2 crossover.
Figure 11.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results of the type-2 crossover.
Figure 12.
Layout of a microstrip phase shifter in ADS.
Figure 12.
Layout of a microstrip phase shifter in ADS.
Figure 13.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for (a) a 22° phase shifter, (b) a 45° phase shifter, and (c) a 67.5° phase shifter.
Figure 13.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for (a) a 22° phase shifter, (b) a 45° phase shifter, and (c) a 67.5° phase shifter.
Figure 14.
Layout of the 4 × 4 Butler matrix in ADS.
Figure 14.
Layout of the 4 × 4 Butler matrix in ADS.
Figure 15.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the 4 × 4 Butler matrix. (a) Isolation, return loss, and insertion losses with port P1 or P4 excited. (b) Isolation, return loss, and insertion losses with port P2 or P3 excited.
Figure 15.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the 4 × 4 Butler matrix. (a) Isolation, return loss, and insertion losses with port P1 or P4 excited. (b) Isolation, return loss, and insertion losses with port P2 or P3 excited.
Figure 16.
Layout of the 8 × 8 Butler matrix in ADS.
Figure 16.
Layout of the 8 × 8 Butler matrix in ADS.
Figure 17.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the 8 × 8 Butler matrix. (a) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P1 or P8 is excited. (b) Insertion losses between P1 or P8 and eight output ports, P9–P16, when port P1 or P8 is excited. (c) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P2 or P7 is excited. (d) Insertion losses between P2 or P7 and eight output ports when P2 or P7 is excited. (e) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P3 or P6 is excited. (f) Insertion losses between port P3 or P6 and eight output ports when P3 or P6 is excited. (g) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P4 or P5 is excited. (h) Insertion losses between port P4 or P5 and eight output ports when P4 or P5 is excited.
Figure 17.
ADS generated 3D FEM simulation results for the 8 × 8 Butler matrix. (a) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P1 or P8 is excited. (b) Insertion losses between P1 or P8 and eight output ports, P9–P16, when port P1 or P8 is excited. (c) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P2 or P7 is excited. (d) Insertion losses between P2 or P7 and eight output ports when P2 or P7 is excited. (e) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P3 or P6 is excited. (f) Insertion losses between port P3 or P6 and eight output ports when P3 or P6 is excited. (g) Return loss and isolation between input ports when P4 or P5 is excited. (h) Insertion losses between port P4 or P5 and eight output ports when P4 or P5 is excited.
Figure 18.
(a) Layout and (b) return loss of the designed inset–fed microstrip patch antenna.
Figure 18.
(a) Layout and (b) return loss of the designed inset–fed microstrip patch antenna.
Figure 19.
(a) 3D radiation pattern of a single inset–fed microstrip patch antenna at = 0°. (b) 3D radiation pattern of the same antenna at = 90°. (c) 2D radiation pattern plotted in rectangular coordinates at = 0°. (d) 2D radiation pattern plotted in rectangular coordinates at = 90°.
Figure 19.
(a) 3D radiation pattern of a single inset–fed microstrip patch antenna at = 0°. (b) 3D radiation pattern of the same antenna at = 90°. (c) 2D radiation pattern plotted in rectangular coordinates at = 0°. (d) 2D radiation pattern plotted in rectangular coordinates at = 90°.
Figure 20.
A 4 × 4 Butler matrix with a microstrip antenna array of four elements in ADS.
Figure 20.
A 4 × 4 Butler matrix with a microstrip antenna array of four elements in ADS.
Figure 21.
Three dimensional FEM simulated radiation patterns generated by ADS. (a) Radiation patterns in rectangular coordinates when beam ports 1L, 2R, 2L, and 1R are excited individually, (b) Radiation patterns in polar coordinates when beam ports 1L, 2R, 2L, and 1R are excited individually, (c) Corresponding parameters values of respective beam ports.
Figure 21.
Three dimensional FEM simulated radiation patterns generated by ADS. (a) Radiation patterns in rectangular coordinates when beam ports 1L, 2R, 2L, and 1R are excited individually, (b) Radiation patterns in polar coordinates when beam ports 1L, 2R, 2L, and 1R are excited individually, (c) Corresponding parameters values of respective beam ports.
Figure 22.
An 8 × 8 Butler matrix with a microstrip antenna array of eight elements in ADS.
Figure 22.
An 8 × 8 Butler matrix with a microstrip antenna array of eight elements in ADS.
Figure 23.
Three dimensional FEM simulated radiation patterns generated by ADS. (a) Radiation patterns in rectangular coordinates when the beam ports are excited individually, (b) radiation patterns in polar coordinates when beam ports are excited individually, (c) corresponding simulation parameters for the beam ports.
Figure 23.
Three dimensional FEM simulated radiation patterns generated by ADS. (a) Radiation patterns in rectangular coordinates when the beam ports are excited individually, (b) radiation patterns in polar coordinates when beam ports are excited individually, (c) corresponding simulation parameters for the beam ports.
Figure 24.
A tentative fabrication method to fabricate the designed Butler matrices. (a) Deposition of titanium layer and gold layer on the backside of the RCA cleaned HPFS glass substrate layer. (b) Deposition of LOR layer on the top layer of HPFS glass substrate. (c) Deposition of photoresist layer over the LOR layer. (d) Patterning of LOR and photoresist layers. (e) Deposition of gold layer by e-beam evaporation method. (f) Removal the LOR and photoresist layers to get the final Butler matrix circuit patterned with gold layer.
Figure 24.
A tentative fabrication method to fabricate the designed Butler matrices. (a) Deposition of titanium layer and gold layer on the backside of the RCA cleaned HPFS glass substrate layer. (b) Deposition of LOR layer on the top layer of HPFS glass substrate. (c) Deposition of photoresist layer over the LOR layer. (d) Patterning of LOR and photoresist layers. (e) Deposition of gold layer by e-beam evaporation method. (f) Removal the LOR and photoresist layers to get the final Butler matrix circuit patterned with gold layer.
Table 1.
Typical specifications of automotive radars [
2].
Table 1.
Typical specifications of automotive radars [
2].
Radar Type | Frequency (GHz) | Bandwidth (GHz) | Angle of Coverage | Range (m) | Resolution (m) |
---|
SRR | 77–81 | 4 | ±20–50° | 0.15–30 | ~0.1 |
MRR | 77–81 | 4 | ±6–10° | 0.2–100 | ~0.5 |
LRR | 76–77 | 1 | ±5–7.5° | 10–250 | ~0.5 |
Table 2.
Phase distribution in a 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Table 2.
Phase distribution in a 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Output Ports | Beam Ports |
---|
1L | 2R | 2L | 1R |
---|
A1 | −45 | −135 | −90 | −180 |
A2 | −90 | 0/360 | −225/135 | −135 |
A3 | −135 | −225/135 | 0/360 | −90 |
A4 | −180 | −90 | −135 | −45 |
Phase difference () | 45 | −135 | 135 | −45 |
Beam angle | −14.47 | 48.6 | −48.6 | 14.47 |
Table 3.
Phase distribution in an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
Table 3.
Phase distribution in an 8 × 8 Butler matrix.
| Beam Ports |
---|
Output Ports | 1L | 4R | 3L | 2R | 2L | 3R | 4L | 1R |
---|
A1 | −112.5° | 157.5° | −135° | 135° | −112.5° | 157.5° | −180° | 90° |
A2 | −135° | −45° | 112.5° | −157.5° | −180° | −90° | 22.5° | 112.5° |
A3 | −157.5° | 112.5° | 0° | −90° | 112.5° | 22.5° | −135° | 135° |
A4 | −180° | −90° | −112.5° | −22.5° | 45° | 135° | 67.5° | 157.5° |
A5 | 157.5° | 67.5° | 135° | 45° | −22.5° | −112.5° | −90° | −180° |
A6 | 135° | −135° | 22.5° | 112.5° | −90° | 0° | 112.5° | −157.5° |
A7 | 112.5° | 22.5° | −90° | −180° | −157.5° | 112.5° | −45° | −135° |
A8 | 90° | −180° | 157.5° | −112.5° | 135° | −135° | 157.5° | −112.5° |
Phase difference () | 22.5° | −157.5° | 112.5° | −67.5° | 67.5° | −112.5° | 157.5° | −22.5° |
Beam angle | −7° | 61° | −39° | 22° | −22° | 39° | −61° | 7° |
Table 4.
Dimensions of the microstrip 90° hybrid coupler.
Table 4.
Dimensions of the microstrip 90° hybrid coupler.
Parameter | W1 | L1 | W2 | L2 | W3 | L3 |
---|
Values (mm) | 0.118 | 0.779 | 0.145 | 0.816 | 0.22 | 0.28 |
Table 5.
Optimized dimensions of the type-1 crossover.
Table 5.
Optimized dimensions of the type-1 crossover.
Parameters | W1 | L1 | W2 | L2 | W3 | L3 | W4 | L4 | W5 | L5 |
---|
Values (mm) | 0.119 | 0.834 | 0.211 | 0.29 | 0.124 | 0.855 | 0.12 | 0.825 | 0.11 | 0.912 |
Table 6.
Optimized dimensions of the type-2 crossover.
Table 6.
Optimized dimensions of the type-2 crossover.
Parameters | W1 | W2 | W3 | W4 | W5 | W6 |
---|
Values (mm) | 0.116 | 0.192 | 0.226 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.122 |
Parameters | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 |
Values (mm) | 0.107 | 0.618 | 0.686 | 0.616 | 0.582 | 0.547 |
Table 7.
Optimized dimensions of the phase shifters.
Table 7.
Optimized dimensions of the phase shifters.
| Parameters |
---|
W1 | L1 | L2 | L3 |
---|
Values (mm) | 22.5° | 0.119 | 0.532 | 0.0533 | 0.616 |
45° | 0.119 | 0.532 | 0.136 | 0.616 |
67.5° | 0.119 | 0.532 | 0.2025 | 0.616 |
Table 8.
Inset-fed microstrip patch antenna dimensions.
Table 8.
Inset-fed microstrip patch antenna dimensions.
Parameters | W | L | a | b | c | d |
---|
Values(mm) | 0.819 | 0.9453 | 0.187 | 0.163 | 0.119 | 0.8434 |
Table 9.
Calculated and observed beam angles for the 4 × 4 Butler matrix after connecting to the 4 × 1 antenna array for individual beam port excitation.
Table 9.
Calculated and observed beam angles for the 4 × 4 Butler matrix after connecting to the 4 × 1 antenna array for individual beam port excitation.
| Beam Ports |
---|
Beam Angle (θp) | 1L | 2R | 2L | 1R |
---|
Calculated | −14.47 | 48.6 | −48.6 | 14.47 |
Observed | −15 | 42 | −42 | 15 |
Error | −0.53 | −6.6 | 6.6 | 0.53 |
Table 10.
Comparison of the performance parameters of the designed 4 × 4 and 8 × 8 Butler matrices.
Table 10.
Comparison of the performance parameters of the designed 4 × 4 and 8 × 8 Butler matrices.
Parameters | 4 × 4 Butler Matrix | 8 × 8 Butler Matrix |
---|
Return loss | <−7 dB | <−9 dB |
Isolation | <−20 dB | <−20 dB |
Maximum main lobe | 10.16 dBi | 9.1 dBi |
Minimum main lobe | 9 dBi | 6.4 dBi |
Elevation angle error | ±6.6° | ±8° |
Total angular coverage | 144° | 162° |
Table 11.
Performance comparison of the designed 77 GHz, 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Table 11.
Performance comparison of the designed 77 GHz, 4 × 4 Butler matrix.
Parameters | Reference [19] | This Work |
---|
Technology | SIW | Microstrip |
Frequency | 77 GHz | 77 GHz |
Simulation software | HFSS | ADS |
Matrix type | 4 × 4 | 4 × 4 |
Substrate | RT/Duroid 6002 | HPFS |
Thickness of substrate | 0.508 mm | 0.2 mm |
Footprint area | 31.5 × 28.5 mm2 | 9.5 × 8.3 mm2 |
Insertion loss | −6.7 ± 0.75 dB | −8 ± 2 dB |
Isolation | <−20 dB | <−20 dB |
Footprint area of antenna array | 9 × 8.4 mm2 | 2.61 × 8.994 mm2 |
Antenna type | Slot | Microstrip |
Return loss | <−10 dB | <−7 dB |
Maximum main lobe power | 12.21 dBi | 10.16 dBi |
Minimum main lobe power | 9.9 dBi | 9 dBi |
Phase error | 7° | 6.6° |