Sensors

16 pages, 2795 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Power Allocation in Multiple-Beam Space Division Access Based on NOMA for Underwater Optical Communication

by Yanlong Li, Syed Agha Hassnain Mohsan, Xiao Chen, Riffat Tehseen, Shuaixing Li and Jianzhao Wang

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031746 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3528

Abstract

To meet the transmission requirements of different users in a multiple-beam access system for underwater optical communication (UWOC), this paper proposes a novel multiple-beam space division multiple access (MB-SDMA) system by utilizing a directional radiation communication beam of the hemispherical LED arrays. The [...] Read more.

To meet the transmission requirements of different users in a multiple-beam access system for underwater optical communication (UWOC), this paper proposes a novel multiple-beam space division multiple access (MB-SDMA) system by utilizing a directional radiation communication beam of the hemispherical LED arrays. The system’s access users in the different beams are divided into two categories: the users with a single beam and the users with multiple beams. We also propose a power allocation algorithm that guarantees the quality of service (QoS) for single beam and multiple beam access, especially the QoS for edge users, and fairness for all users. An optimization model of power distribution under the constraints of specific light-emitting diode (LED) emission power is established for two scenarios, which ensure the user QoS for edge users and the max–min fairness for fair users. Using the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) condition and the bisection method, we obtain the optimal power allocation expression for the two types of users in the optimization model. Through simulation, we verify that the proposed user classification and power allocation method can ensure the fairness of fair users on the premise of ensuring the QoS of edge users. At the same time, we know that the number of users will affect the improvement of the minimum rate, and the throughput of the non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) system is greatly improved compared with the traditional orthogonal multiple access (OMA) systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-orthogonal Multiple Access Techniques in Emerging Optical Wireless Sensor Networks)

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29 pages, 7174 KB

Open AccessArticle

Core versus Surface Sensors for Reinforced Concrete Structures: A Comparison of Fiber-Optic Strain Sensing to Conventional Instrumentation

by Ryan Hoult, Alex Bertholet and João Pacheco de Almeida

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1745; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031745 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3649

Abstract

High-resolution distributed reinforcement strain measurements can provide invaluable information for developing and evaluating numerical and analytical models of reinforced concrete structures. A recent testing campaign conducted at UCLouvain in Belgium used fiber-optic sensors embedded along several longitudinal steel rebars of three reinforced concrete [...] Read more.

High-resolution distributed reinforcement strain measurements can provide invaluable information for developing and evaluating numerical and analytical models of reinforced concrete structures. A recent testing campaign conducted at UCLouvain in Belgium used fiber-optic sensors embedded along several longitudinal steel rebars of three reinforced concrete U-shaped walls. The resulting experimental dataset provides an opportunity to evaluate and compare, for different types of loading, the strain measurements obtained with the fiber-optic sensors in the confined core of the structural member against more conventional and state-of-the-practice sensors that monitor surface displacements and deformations. This work highlights the need to average strain measurements from digital image correlation techniques in order to obtain coherent results with the strains measured from fiber optics, and investigates proposals to achieve this relevant goal for research and engineering practices. The longitudinal strains measured by the fiber optics also provide additional detailed information on the behavior of these wall units compared to the more conventional instrumentation, such as strain penetration into the foundation and head of the wall units, which are studied in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Distributed Fibre Optic Sensing Technologies and Applications)

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13 pages, 1658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating IoT-Based Services to Support Patient Empowerment in Digital Home Hospitalization Services

by Patricia Abril-Jiménez, Beatriz Merino-Barbancho, Giuseppe Fico, Juan Carlos Martín Guirado, Cecilia Vera-Muñoz, Irene Mallo, Ivana Lombroni, María Fernanda Cabrera Umpierrez and María Teresa Arredondo Waldmeyer

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1744; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031744 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3677

Abstract

Hospitals need to optimize patient care, as, among other factors, life expectancy has increased due to improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and medicines. Hospitalization-at-home (HaH) could increase admission efficiency, moderate costs, and reduce the demand for beds. This study aimed to provide data on [...] Read more.

Hospitals need to optimize patient care, as, among other factors, life expectancy has increased due to improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and medicines. Hospitalization-at-home (HaH) could increase admission efficiency, moderate costs, and reduce the demand for beds. This study aimed to provide data on the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of the integration of IoT-based technology to support the remote monitoring and follow-up of patients admitted to HaH units, as well as the acceptability of IoT-based solutions in healthcare processes. The need for a reduction in the number of admission days, the percentage of admissions after discharge, and the actions of the emergency services during admission were the most relevant findings of this study. Furthermore, in terms of patient safety and trust perception, 98% of patients preferred this type of digitally-supported hospitalization model and up to 95% were very satisfied. On the professional side, the results showed a reduction in work overload and an increase in trust when the system was adopted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors and IoT Devices Applied in Daily Life)

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11 pages, 1052 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Multi-Input Speech Emotion Recognition Model Using Mel Spectrogram and GeMAPS

by Itsuki Toyoshima, Yoshifumi Okada, Momoko Ishimaru, Ryunosuke Uchiyama and Mayu Tada

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1743; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031743 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5285

Abstract

The existing research on emotion recognition commonly uses mel spectrogram (MelSpec) and Geneva minimalistic acoustic parameter set (GeMAPS) as acoustic parameters to learn the audio features. MelSpec can represent the time-series variations of each frequency but cannot manage multiple types of audio features. [...] Read more.

The existing research on emotion recognition commonly uses mel spectrogram (MelSpec) and Geneva minimalistic acoustic parameter set (GeMAPS) as acoustic parameters to learn the audio features. MelSpec can represent the time-series variations of each frequency but cannot manage multiple types of audio features. On the other hand, GeMAPS can handle multiple audio features but fails to provide information on their time-series variations. Thus, this study proposes a speech emotion recognition model based on a multi-input deep neural network that simultaneously learns these two audio features. The proposed model comprises three parts, specifically, for learning MelSpec in image format, learning GeMAPS in vector format, and integrating them to predict the emotion. Additionally, a focal loss function is introduced to address the imbalanced data problem among the emotion classes. The results of the recognition experiments demonstrate weighted and unweighted accuracies of 0.6657 and 0.6149, respectively, which are higher than or comparable to those of the existing state-of-the-art methods. Overall, the proposed model significantly improves the recognition accuracy of the emotion “happiness”, which has been difficult to identify in previous studies owing to limited data. Therefore, the proposed model can effectively recognize emotions from speech and can be applied for practical purposes with future development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotion Recognition Based on Sensors (Volume II))

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20 pages, 5948 KB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of the Digital QS-SVM-Based Beamformer on an FPGA Platform

by Somayeh Komeylian and Christopher Paolini

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1742; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031742 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3064

Abstract

To address practical challenges in establishing and maintaining robust wireless connectivity such as multi-path effects, low latency, size reduction, and high data rate, we have deployed the digital beamformer, as a spatial filter, by using the hybrid antenna array at an operating frequency [...] Read more.

To address practical challenges in establishing and maintaining robust wireless connectivity such as multi-path effects, low latency, size reduction, and high data rate, we have deployed the digital beamformer, as a spatial filter, by using the hybrid antenna array at an operating frequency of 10 GHz. The proposed digital beamformer utilizes a combination of the two well-established beamforming techniques of minimum variance distortionless response (MVDR) and linearly constrained minimum variance (LCMV). In this case, the MVDR beamforming method updates weight vectors on the FPGA board, while the LCMV beamforming technique performs nullsteering in directions of interference signals in the real environment. The most well-established machine learning technique of support vector machine (SVM) for the Direction of Arrival (DoA) estimation is limited to problems with linearly-separable datasets. To overcome the aforementioned constraint, the quadratic surface support vector machine (QS-SVM) classifier with a small regularizer has been used in the proposed beamformer for the DoA estimation in addition to the two beamforming techniques of LCMV and MVDR. In this work, we have assumed that five hybrid array antennas and three sources are available, at which one of the sources transmits the signal of interest. The QS-SVM-based beamformer has been deployed on the FPGA board for spatially filtering two signals from undesired directions and passing only one of the signals from the desired direction. The simulation results have verified the strong performance of the QS-SVM-based beamformer in suppressing interference signals, which are accompanied by placing deep nulls with powers less than −10 dB in directions of interference signals, and transferring the desired signal. Furthermore, we have verified that the performance of the QS-SVM-based beamformer yields other advantages including average latency time in the order of milliseconds, performance efficiency of more than 90%, and throughput of nearly 100%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Communications)

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12 pages, 2679 KB

Open AccessArticle

A New Method for Training CycleGAN to Enhance Images of Cold Seeps in the Qiongdongnan Sea

by Yuanheng Li, Shengxiong Yang, Yuehua Gong, Jingya Cao, Guang Hu, Yutian Deng, Dongmei Tian and Junming Zhou

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1741; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031741 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2719

Abstract

Clear underwater images can help researchers detect cold seeps, gas hydrates, and biological resources. However, the quality of these images suffers from nonuniform lighting, a limited range of visibility, and unwanted signals. CycleGAN has been broadly studied in regard to underwater image enhancement, [...] Read more.

Clear underwater images can help researchers detect cold seeps, gas hydrates, and biological resources. However, the quality of these images suffers from nonuniform lighting, a limited range of visibility, and unwanted signals. CycleGAN has been broadly studied in regard to underwater image enhancement, but it is difficult to apply the model for the further detection of Haima cold seeps in the South China Sea because the model can be difficult to train if the dataset used is not appropriate. In this article, we devise a new method of building a dataset using MSRCR and choose the best images based on the widely used UIQM scheme to build the dataset. The experimental results show that a good CycleGAN could be trained with the dataset using the proposed method. The model has good potential for applications in detecting the Haima cold seeps and can be applied to other cold seeps, such as the cold seeps in the North Sea. We conclude that the method used for building the dataset can be applied to train CycleGAN when enhancing images from cold seeps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nonlinear Signal and Image Processing: Current Trends and Future Directions)

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11 pages, 1831 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of a Side-Row Continuous Canopy Shaking Harvester and Its Adaptability to the Portuguese Cobrançosa Variety in High-Density Olive Orchards

by Fernando Aragon-Rodriguez, António B. Dias, Anacleto Pinheiro, José Peça, Ivo Lourenço Días and Sergio Castro-Garcia

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1740; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031740 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2536

Abstract

The olive tree is an important crop in Portugal, where different levels of intensification coexist. The traditional olive orchards present profitability problems, mainly due to harvesting, so there has been a drastic reconversion towards high-density or super-high-density olive orchards. The latter present major [...] Read more.

The olive tree is an important crop in Portugal, where different levels of intensification coexist. The traditional olive orchards present profitability problems, mainly due to harvesting, so there has been a drastic reconversion towards high-density or super-high-density olive orchards. The latter present major constraints due to very specific needs for their use, being practically destined for new orchards. Consequently, the possibility of using systems based on canopy shakers in high-density olive orchards with local varieties is promising. The objective of this work is to evaluate a prototype canopy shaker for the harvesting of high-density olive orchards of the Portuguese variety ‘Cobrançosa’. The evaluation is based on the study of canopy shaking in order to adapt canopy training and the adaptability of the machine. For this purpose, the vibration of 72 points of the tree canopy was recorded and a qualitative assessment of the harvest was carried out. Differences were found between the different zones according to the direction of the forward movement of the harvester and the distance to the trunk. These differences were associated with the values obtained for fruit detachment, and a greater quantity of fruit was harvested in the areas of the canopy in contact with the rods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Smart Agriculture)

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16 pages, 27318 KB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of Water Vapor Condensation on Apple Surfaces during Controlled Atmosphere Storage

by Manfred Linke, Ulrike Praeger, Daniel A. Neuwald and Martin Geyer

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1739; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031739 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4619

Abstract

Apples are stored at temperatures close to 0 °C and high relative humidity (up to 95%) under controlled atmosphere conditions. Under these conditions, the cyclic operation of the refrigeration machine and the associated temperature fluctuations can lead to localized undershoots of the dew [...] Read more.

Apples are stored at temperatures close to 0 °C and high relative humidity (up to 95%) under controlled atmosphere conditions. Under these conditions, the cyclic operation of the refrigeration machine and the associated temperature fluctuations can lead to localized undershoots of the dew point on fruit surfaces. The primary question for the present study was to prove that such condensation processes can be measured under practical conditions during apple storage. Using the example of a measuring point in the upper apple layer of a large bin in the supply air area, this evidence was provided. Using two independent measuring methods, a wetness sensor attached to the apple surface and determination of climatic conditions near the fruit, the phases of condensation, namely active condensation and evaporation, were measured over three weeks as a function of the operating time of the cooling system components (refrigeration machine, fans, defrosting regime). The system for measurement and continuous data acquisition in the case of an airtight CA-storage room is presented and the influence of the operation of the cooling system components in relation to condensation phenomena was evaluated. Depending on the set point specifications for ventilation and defrost control, condensed water was present on the apple surface between 33.4% and 100% of the duration of the varying cooling/re-warming cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors and Biosensors for Environmental and Food Applications)

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13 pages, 4346 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Validity and Reliability of Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)-Derived 3D Joint Kinematics in Persons Wearing Transtibial Prosthesis

by Jutima Rattanakoch, Manunchaya Samala, Weerawat Limroongreungrat, Gary Guerra, Kittichai Tharawadeepimuk, Ampika Nanbancha, Wisavaporn Niamsang, Pichitpol Kerdsomnuek and Sarit Suwanmana

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031738 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5256

Abstract

Background: A validity and reliability assessment of inertial measurement unit (IMU)-derived joint angular kinematics during walking is a necessary step for motion analysis in the lower extremity prosthesis user population. This study aimed to assess the accuracy and reliability of an inertial measurement [...] Read more.

Background: A validity and reliability assessment of inertial measurement unit (IMU)-derived joint angular kinematics during walking is a necessary step for motion analysis in the lower extremity prosthesis user population. This study aimed to assess the accuracy and reliability of an inertial measurement unit (IMU) system compared to an optical motion capture (OMC) system in transtibial prosthesis (TTP) users. Methods: Thirty TTP users were recruited and underwent simultaneous motion capture from IMU and OMC systems during walking. Reliability and validity were assessed using intra- and inter-subject variability with standard deviation (S.D.), average S.D., and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results: The intra-subject S.D. for all rotations of the lower limb joints were less than 1° for both systems. The IMU system had a lower mean S.D. (^o), as seen in inter-subject variability. The ICC revealed good to excellent agreement between the two systems for all sagittal kinematic parameters. Conclusion: All joint angular kinematic comparisons supported the IMU system’s results as comparable to OMC. The IMU was capable of precise sagittal plane motion data and demonstrated validity and reliability to OMC. These findings evidence that when compared to OMC, an IMU system may serve well in evaluating the gait of lower limb prosthesis users. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensing for Human Motion Monitoring)

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21 pages, 23263 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Panel Inspection Using Explicit Band Gaussian Filtering Methods in Discrete Cosine Domain

by Hong-Dar Lin, Huan-Hua Tsai, Chou-Hsien Lin and Hung-Tso Chang

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1737; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031737 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2065

Abstract

Capacitive touch panels (CTPs) have the merits of being waterproof, antifouling, scratch resistant, and capable of rapid response, making them more popular in various touch electronic products. However, the CTP has a multilayer structure, and the background is a directional texture. The inspection [...] Read more.

Capacitive touch panels (CTPs) have the merits of being waterproof, antifouling, scratch resistant, and capable of rapid response, making them more popular in various touch electronic products. However, the CTP has a multilayer structure, and the background is a directional texture. The inspection work is more difficult when the defect area is small and occurs in the textured background. This study focused mainly on the automated defect inspection of CTPs with structural texture on the surface, using the spectral attributes of the discrete cosine transform (DCT) with the proposed three-way double-band Gaussian filtering (3W-DBGF) method. With consideration to the bandwidth and angle of the high-energy region combined with the characteristics of band filtering, threshold filtering, and Gaussian distribution filtering, the frequency values with higher energy are removed, and after reversal to the spatial space, the textured background can be weakened and the defects enhanced. Finally, we use simple statistics to set binarization threshold limits that can accurately separate defects from the background. The detection outcomes showed that the flaw detection rate of the DCT-based 3W-DBGF approach was 94.21%, the false-positive rate of the normal area was 1.97%, and the correct classification rate was 98.04%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computer Vision and Sensing Technologies for Industrial Quality Inspection)

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14 pages, 4558 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deriving Multiple-Layer Information from a Motion-Sensing Mattress for Precision Care

by Dorothy Bai, Mu-Chieh Ho, Bhekumuzi M. Mathunjwa and Yeh-Liang Hsu

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1736; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031736 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3792

Abstract

Bed is often the personal care unit in hospitals, nursing homes, and individuals’ homes. Rich care-related information can be derived from the sensing data from bed. Patient fall is a significant issue in hospitals, many of which are related to getting in and/or [...] Read more.

Bed is often the personal care unit in hospitals, nursing homes, and individuals’ homes. Rich care-related information can be derived from the sensing data from bed. Patient fall is a significant issue in hospitals, many of which are related to getting in and/or out of bed. To prevent bed falls, a motion-sensing mattress was developed for bed-exit detection. A machine learning algorithm deployed on the chip in the control box of the mattress identified the in-bed postures based on the on/off pressure pattern of 30 sensing areas to capture the users’ bed-exit intention. This study aimed to explore how sleep-related data derived from the on/off status of 30 sensing areas of this motion-sensing mattress can be used for multiple layers of precision care information, including wellbeing status on the dashboard and big data analysis for living pattern clustering. This study describes how multiple layers of personalized care-related information are further derived from the motion-sensing mattress, including real-time in-bed/off-bed status, daily records, sleep quality, prolonged pressure areas, and long-term living patterns. Twenty-four mattresses and the smart mattress care system (SMCS) were installed in a dementia nursing home in Taiwan for a field trial. Residents’ on-bed/off-bed data were collected for 12 weeks from August to October 2021. The SMCS was developed to display care-related information via an integrated dashboard as well as sending reminders to caregivers when detecting events such as bed exits and changes in patients’ sleep and living patterns. The ultimate goal is to support caregivers with precision care, reduce their care burden, and increase the quality of care. At the end of the field trial, we interviewed four caregivers for their subjective opinions about whether and how the SMCS helped their work. The caregivers’ main responses included that the SMCS helped caregivers notice the abnormal situation for people with dementia, communicate with family members of the residents, confirm medication adjustments, and whether the standard care procedure was appropriately conducted. Future studies are suggested to focus on integrated care strategy recommendations based on users’ personalized sleep-related data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Signal Processing Based on Wearable Non-invasive Device)

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17 pages, 3464 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple In-Mold Sensors for Quality and Process Control in Injection Molding

by Richárd Dominik Párizs, Dániel Török, Tatyana Ageyeva and József Gábor Kovács

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1735; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031735 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5340

Abstract

The simultaneous improvement of injection molding process efficiency and product quality, as required by Industry 4.0, is a complex, non-trivial task that requires a comprehensive approach, which involves a combination of sensoring and information techniques. In this study, we investigated the suitability of [...] Read more.

The simultaneous improvement of injection molding process efficiency and product quality, as required by Industry 4.0, is a complex, non-trivial task that requires a comprehensive approach, which involves a combination of sensoring and information techniques. In this study, we investigated the suitability of in-mold pressure sensors to control the injection molding process in multi-cavity molds. We have conducted several experiments to show how to optimize the clamping force, switchover, or holding time by measuring only pressure in a multi-cavity mold. The results show that the pressure curves and the pressure integral are suitable for determining optimal clamping force. We also proved that in-channel sensors could be effectively used for a pressure-controlled SWOP. In the volume-controlled method, only the sensors in the cavity were capable of correctly detecting the end of the filling. We proposed a method to optimize the holding phase. In this method, we first determined the integration time of the area under the pressure curve and then performed a model fit using the relationship between the pressure integral and product mass. The saturation curve fitted to the pressure data can easily determine the gate freeze-off time from pressure measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensing and Artificial Intelligence for Civil Infrastructure Monitoring and Management)

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24 pages, 3445 KB

Open AccessArticle

A GPS-Referenced Wavelength Standard for High-Precision Displacement Interferometry at λ = 633 nm

by Ulrike Blumröder, Paul Köchert, Thomas Fröhlich, Thomas Kissinger, Ingo Ortlepp, Jens Flügge, Harald Bosse and Eberhard Manske

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031734 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3897

Abstract

Since the turn of the millennium, the development and commercial availability of optical frequency combs has led to a steadily increase of worldwide installed frequency combs and a growing interest in using them for industrial-related metrology applications. Especially, GPS-referenced frequency combs often serve [...] Read more.

Since the turn of the millennium, the development and commercial availability of optical frequency combs has led to a steadily increase of worldwide installed frequency combs and a growing interest in using them for industrial-related metrology applications. Especially, GPS-referenced frequency combs often serve as a “self-calibrating” length standard for laser wavelength calibration in many national metrology institutes with uncertainties better than u = 1 × 10⁻¹¹. In this contribution, the application of a He-Ne laser source permanently disciplined to a GPS-referenced frequency comb for the interferometric measurements in a nanopositioning machine with a measuring volume of 200 mm × 200 mm × 25 mm (NPMM-200) is discussed. For this purpose, the frequency stability of the GPS-referenced comb is characterized by heterodyning with a diode laser referenced to an ultrastable cavity. Based on this comparison, an uncertainty of u = 9.2 × 10⁻¹² (τ = 8 s, k = 2) for the GPS-referenced comb has been obtained. By stabilizing a tunable He-Ne source to a single comb line, the long-term frequency stability of the comb is transferred onto our gas lasers increasing their long-term stability by three orders of magnitude. Second, short-term fluctuations-related length measurement errors were reduced to a value that falls below the nominal resolving capabilities of our interferometers (ΔL/L = 2.9 × 10⁻¹¹). Both measures make the influence of frequency distortions on the interferometric length measurement within the NPMM-200 negligible. Furthermore, this approach establishes a permanent link of interferometric length measurements to an atomic clock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Metrology Using Ultrashort Pulse Laser and Optical Frequency Comb)

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20 pages, 8977 KB

Open AccessArticle

Variable Thickness Strain Pre-Extrapolation for the Inverse Finite Element Method

by Dario Poloni, Daniele Oboe, Claudio Sbarufatti and Marco Giglio

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031733 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3489

Abstract

The inverse Finite Element Method (iFEM) has recently gained much popularity within the Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) field since, given sparse strain measurements, it reconstructs the displacement field of any beam or shell structure independently of the external loading conditions and of the [...] Read more.

The inverse Finite Element Method (iFEM) has recently gained much popularity within the Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) field since, given sparse strain measurements, it reconstructs the displacement field of any beam or shell structure independently of the external loading conditions and of the material properties. However, in principle, the iFEM requires a triaxial strain measurement for each inverse finite element, which is seldom feasible in practical applications due to both costs and cabling-related limitations. To alleviate this problem several techniques to pre-extrapolate the measured strains have been developed, so that interpolated or extrapolated strain values are inputted to elements without physical sensors: the benefit is that the required number of sensors can be reduced. Nevertheless, whenever the monitored components comprise regions of different thicknesses, each region of constant thickness must be extrapolated separately, due to thickness-induced discontinuities in the strain field. This is the case in many practical applications, especially those concerning fiber-reinforced composite laminates. This paper proposes to extrapolate the measured strain field in a thickness-normalized space, where the thickness-induced trends are removed; this novel method can significantly decrease the number of required sensors, effectively reducing the costs of iFEM-based SHM systems. The method is validated in a simple but informative numerical case study, highlighting the potentialities and benefits of the proposed approach for more complex application scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shape Sensing 2021-2024)

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20 pages, 3026 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Reinforcement Learning for Edge Caching with Mobility Prediction in Vehicular Networks

by Yoonjeong Choi and Yujin Lim

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031732 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3465

Abstract

As vehicles are connected to the Internet, various services can be provided to users. However, if the requests of vehicle users are concentrated on the remote server, the transmission delay increases, and there is a high possibility that the delay constraint cannot be [...] Read more.

As vehicles are connected to the Internet, various services can be provided to users. However, if the requests of vehicle users are concentrated on the remote server, the transmission delay increases, and there is a high possibility that the delay constraint cannot be satisfied. To solve this problem, caching can be performed at a closer proximity to the user which in turn would reduce the latency by distributing requests. The road side unit (RSU) and vehicle can serve as caching nodes by providing storage space closer to users through a mobile edge computing (MEC) server and an on-board unit (OBU), respectively. In this paper, we propose a caching strategy for both RSUs and vehicles with the goal of maximizing the caching node throughput. The vehicles move at a greater speed; thus, if positions of the vehicles are predictable in advance, this helps to determine the location and type of content that has to be cached. By using the temporal and spatial characteristics of vehicles, we adopted a long short-term memory (LSTM) to predict the locations of the vehicles. To respond to time-varying content popularity, a deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) was used to determine the size of each piece of content to be stored in the caching nodes. Experiments in various environments have proven that the proposed algorithm performs better when compared to other caching methods in terms of the throughput of caching nodes, delay constraint satisfaction, and update cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic IOT, Communication and Engineering)

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15 pages, 4253 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vehicle Detection and Recognition Approach in Multi-Scale Traffic Monitoring System via Graph-Based Data Optimization

by Grzegorz Wieczorek, Sheikh Badar ud din Tahir, Israr Akhter and Jaroslaw Kurek

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1731; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031731 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5718

Abstract

Over the past few years, significant investments in smart traffic monitoring systems have been made. The most important step in machine learning is detecting and recognizing objects relative to vehicles. Due to variations in vision and different lighting conditions, the recognition and tracking [...] Read more.

Over the past few years, significant investments in smart traffic monitoring systems have been made. The most important step in machine learning is detecting and recognizing objects relative to vehicles. Due to variations in vision and different lighting conditions, the recognition and tracking of vehicles under varying extreme conditions has become one of the most challenging tasks. To deal with this, our proposed system presents an adaptive method for robustly recognizing several existing automobiles in dense traffic settings. Additionally, this research presents a broad framework for effective on-road vehicle recognition and detection. Furthermore, the proposed system focuses on challenges typically noticed in analyzing traffic scenes captured by in-vehicle cameras, such as consistent extraction of features. First, we performed frame conversion, background subtraction, and object shape optimization as preprocessing steps. Next, two important features (energy and deep optical flow) were extracted. The incorporation of energy and dense optical flow features in distance-adaptive window areas and subsequent processing over the fused features resulted in a greater capacity for discrimination. Next, a graph-mining-based approach was applied to select optimal features. Finally, the artificial neural network was adopted for detection and classification. The experimental results show significant performance in two benchmark datasets, including the LISA and KITTI 7 databases. The LISA dataset achieved a mean recognition rate of 93.75% on the LDB1 and LDB2 databases, whereas KITTI attained 82.85% accuracy on separate training of ANN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence for Sensors)

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33 pages, 12498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Geometric Data Registration of Small Objects from Non-Invasive Techniques: Applicability to the HBIM Field

by Juan Moyano, Elena Cabrera-Revuelta, Juan E. Nieto-Julián, María Fernández-Alconchel and Pedro Fernández-Valderrama

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1730; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031730 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3274

Abstract

Reverse engineering and the creation of digital twins are advantageous for documenting, cataloging, and maintenance control tracking in the cultural heritage field. Digital copies of the objects into Building Information Models (BIM) add cultural interest to every artistic work. Low-cost 3D sensors, particularly [...] Read more.

Reverse engineering and the creation of digital twins are advantageous for documenting, cataloging, and maintenance control tracking in the cultural heritage field. Digital copies of the objects into Building Information Models (BIM) add cultural interest to every artistic work. Low-cost 3D sensors, particularly structured-light scanners, have evolved towards multiple uses in the entertainment market but also as data acquisition and processing techniques for research purposes. Nowadays, with the development of structured-light data capture technologies, the geometry of objects can be recorded in high-resolution 3D datasets at a very low cost. On this basis, this research addresses a small artifact with geometric singularities that is representative of small museum objects. For this, the precision of two structured-light scanners is compared with that of the photogrammetric technique based on short-range image capture: a high-cost Artec Spider 3D scanner, and the low-cost Revopoint POP 3D scanner. Data capture accuracy is evaluated through a mathematical algorithm and point set segmentation to verify the spatial resolution. In addition, the precision of the 3D model is studied through a vector analysis in a BIM environment, an unprecedented analysis until now. The work evaluates the accuracy of the devices through algorithms and the study of point density at the submillimeter scale. Although the results of the 3D geometry may vary in a morphometric analysis depending on the device records, the results demonstrate similar accuracies in that submillimeter range. Photogrammetry achieved an accuracy of 0.70 mm versus the Artec Spider and 0.57 mm against the Revopoint POP 3D scanner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 11988 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction with Industrial Digital Twin Using Neuro-Symbolic Reasoning

by Aziz Siyaev, Dilmurod Valiev and Geun-Sik Jo

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031729 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7292

Abstract

Digital twins have revolutionized manufacturing and maintenance, allowing us to interact with virtual yet realistic representations of the physical world in simulations to identify potential problems or opportunities for improvement. However, traditional digital twins do not have the ability to communicate with humans [...] Read more.

Digital twins have revolutionized manufacturing and maintenance, allowing us to interact with virtual yet realistic representations of the physical world in simulations to identify potential problems or opportunities for improvement. However, traditional digital twins do not have the ability to communicate with humans using natural language, which limits their potential usefulness. Although conventional natural language processing methods have proven to be effective in solving certain tasks, neuro-symbolic AI offers a new approach that leads to more robust and versatile solutions. In this paper, we propose neuro-symbolic reasoning (NSR)—a fundamental method for interacting with 3D digital twins using natural language. The method understands user requests and contexts to manipulate 3D components of digital twins and is able to read maintenance manuals and implement installations and removal procedures autonomously. A practical neuro-symbolic dataset of machine-understandable manuals, 3D models, and user queries is collected to train the neuro-symbolic reasoning interaction mechanism. The evaluation demonstrates that NSR can execute user commands accurately, achieving 96.2% accuracy on test data. The proposed method has industrial importance since it provides the technology to perform maintenance procedures, request information from manuals, and serve as a tool to interact with complex virtual machinery using natural language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue IoT, AI, and Digital Twin for Smart Manufacturing)

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19 pages, 4815 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Affordable NIR Spectroscopic System for Fraud Detection in Olive Oil

by Candela Melendreras, Ana Soldado, José M. Costa-Fernández, Alberto López, Marta Valledor, Juan Carlos Campo and Francisco Ferrero

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1728; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031728 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5042

Abstract

Adulterations of olive oil are performed by adding seed oils to this high-quality product, which are cheaper than olive oils. Food safety controls have been established by the European Union to avoid these episodes. Most of these methodologies require expensive equipment, time-consuming procedures, [...] Read more.

Adulterations of olive oil are performed by adding seed oils to this high-quality product, which are cheaper than olive oils. Food safety controls have been established by the European Union to avoid these episodes. Most of these methodologies require expensive equipment, time-consuming procedures, and expert personnel to execute. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technology has many applications in the food processing industry. It analyzes food safety and quality parameters along the food chain. Using principal component analysis (PCA), the differences and similarities between olive oil and seed oils (sesame, sunflower, and flax oil) have been evaluated. To quantify the percentage of adulterated seed oil in olive oils, partial least squares (PLS) have been employed. A total of 96 samples of olive oil adulterated with seed oils were prepared. These samples were used to build a spectra library covering various mixtures containing seed oils and olive oil contents. Eighteen chemometric models were developed by combining the first and second derivatives with Standard Normal Variable (SNV) for scatter correction to classify and quantify seed oil adulteration and percentage. The results obtained for all seed oils show excellent coefficients of determination for calibration higher than 0.80. Because the instrumental aspects are not generally sufficiently addressed in the articles, we include a specific section on some key aspects of developing a high-performance and cost-effective NIR spectroscopy solution for fraud detection in olive oil. First, spectroscopy architectures are introduced, especially the Texas Instruments Digital Light Processing (DLP) technology for spectroscopy that has been used in this work. These results demonstrate that the portable prototype can be used as an effective tool to detect food fraud in liquid samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Sensors and Embedded Sensor Systems for Food Analysis)

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15 pages, 4550 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deposition of Thick SiO₂ Coatings to Carbonyl Iron Microparticles for Thermal Stability and Microwave Performance

by Arthur V. Dolmatov, Sergey S. Maklakov, Anastasia V. Artemova, Dmitry A. Petrov, Artem O. Shiryaev and Andrey N. Lagarkov

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1727; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031727 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3160

Abstract

Thick dielectric SiO₂ shells on the surface of iron particles enhance the thermal and electrodynamic parameters of the iron. A technique to deposit thick, 500-nm, SiO₂ shell to the surface of carbonyl iron (CI) particles was developed. The method consists of [...] Read more.

Thick dielectric SiO₂ shells on the surface of iron particles enhance the thermal and electrodynamic parameters of the iron. A technique to deposit thick, 500-nm, SiO₂ shell to the surface of carbonyl iron (CI) particles was developed. The method consists of repeated deposition of SiO₂ particles with air drying between iterations. This method allows to obtain thick dielectric shells up to 475 nm on individual CI particles. The paper shows that a thick SiO₂ protective layer reduces the permittivity of the ‘Fe-SiO₂—paraffin’ composite in accordance with the Maxwell Garnett medium theory. The protective shell increases the thermal stability of iron, when heated in air, by shifting the transition temperature to the higher oxide. The particle size, the thickness of the SiO₂ shells, and the elemental analysis of the samples were studied using a scanning electron microscope. A coaxial waveguide and the Nicholson–Ross technique were used to measure microwave permeability and permittivity of the samples. A vibrating-sample magnetometer (VSM) was used to measure the magnetostatic data. A synchronous thermal analysis was applied to measure the thermal stability of the coated iron particles. The developed samples can be applied for electromagnetic compatibility problems, as well as the active material for various types of sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Materials)

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29 pages, 12829 KB

Open AccessArticle

Table Tennis Track Detection Based on Temporal Feature Multiplexing Network

by Wenjie Li, Xiangpeng Liu, Kang An, Chengjin Qin and Yuhua Cheng

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1726; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031726 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5980

Abstract

Recording the trajectory of table tennis balls in real-time enables the analysis of the opponent’s attacking characteristics and weaknesses. The current analysis of the ball paths mainly relied on human viewing, which lacked certain theoretical data support. In order to solve the problem [...] Read more.

Recording the trajectory of table tennis balls in real-time enables the analysis of the opponent’s attacking characteristics and weaknesses. The current analysis of the ball paths mainly relied on human viewing, which lacked certain theoretical data support. In order to solve the problem of the lack of objective data analysis in the research of table tennis competition, a target detection algorithm-based table tennis trajectory extraction network was proposed to record the trajectory of the table tennis movement in video. The network improved the feature reuse rate in order to achieve a lightweight network and enhance the detection accuracy. The core of the network was the “feature store & return” module, which could store the output of the current network layer and pass the features to the input of the network layer at the next moment to achieve efficient reuse of the features. In this module, the Transformer model was used to secondarily process the features, build the global association information, and enhance the feature richness of the feature map. According to the designed experiments, the detection accuracy of the network was 96.8% for table tennis and 89.1% for target localization. Moreover, the parameter size of the model was only 7.68 MB, and the detection frame rate could reach 634.19 FPS using the hardware for the tests. In summary, the network designed in this paper has the characteristics of both lightweight and high precision in table tennis detection, and the performance of the proposed model significantly outperforms that of the existing models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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16 pages, 3439 KB

Open AccessReview

Ultrasensitive Optical Fiber Sensors Working at Dispersion Turning Point: Review

by Shengyao Xu, Peng Kang, Zhijie Hu, Weijie Chang and Feng Huang

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1725; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031725 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3851

Abstract

Optical fiber sensors working at the dispersion turning point (DTP) have served as promising candidates for various sensing applications due to their ultrahigh sensitivity. In this review, recently developed ultrasensitive fiber sensors at the DTP, including fiber couplers, fiber gratings, and interferometers, are [...] Read more.

Optical fiber sensors working at the dispersion turning point (DTP) have served as promising candidates for various sensing applications due to their ultrahigh sensitivity. In this review, recently developed ultrasensitive fiber sensors at the DTP, including fiber couplers, fiber gratings, and interferometers, are comprehensively analyzed. These three schemes are outlined in terms of operation principles, device structures, and sensing applications. We focus on sensitivity enhancement and optical transducers, we evaluate each sensing scheme based on the DTP principle, and we discuss relevant challenges, aiming to provide some clues for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Infocomm Technology including Selected Papers from 14th ICAIT 2022)

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33 pages, 3375 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Modular In-Vehicle C-ITS Architecture for Sensor Data Collection, Vehicular Communications and Cloud Connectivity

by David Rocha, Gil Teixeira, Emanuel Vieira, João Almeida and Joaquim Ferreira

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1724; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031724 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5850

Abstract

The growth of the automobile industry in recent decades and the overuse of personal vehicles have amplified problems directly related to road safety, such as the increase in traffic congestion and number of accidents, as well as the degradation of the quality of [...] Read more.

The growth of the automobile industry in recent decades and the overuse of personal vehicles have amplified problems directly related to road safety, such as the increase in traffic congestion and number of accidents, as well as the degradation of the quality of roads. At the same time, and with the contribution of climate change effects, dangerous weather events have become more common on road infrastructure. In this context, Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS) and Internet of Things (IoT) solutions emerge to overcome the limitations of human and local sensory systems, through the collection and distribution of relevant data to Connected and Automated Vehicles (CAVs). In this paper, an intra- and inter-vehicle sensory data collection system is presented, starting with the acquisition of relevant data present on the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, collected through the vehicle’s On-Board-Diagnostics II (OBD-II) port, as well as on an on-board smartphone device and possibly other additional sensors. Short-range communication technologies, such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Wi-Fi, and ITS-G5, are employed in conjunction with long-range cellular networks for data dissemination and remote cloud monitoring. The results of the experimental tests allow the analysis of the road environment, as well as the notification in near real-time of adverse road conditions to drivers. The developed data collection system reveals itself as a potentially valuable tool for improving road safety and to iterate on the current Road Weather Models (RWMs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Networks for Vehicular Communications)

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24 pages, 11771 KB

Open AccessArticle

Map Space Modeling Method Reflecting Safety Margin in Coastal Water Based on Electronic Chart for Path Planning

by Da-un Jang and Joo-sung Kim

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1723; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031723 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2891

Abstract

Map space composition is the first step in ship route planning. In this study, a map modeling method for path planning is proposed. This method incorporates the safety margin based on the theory of geographic space existing in coastal waters, maneuvering space according [...] Read more.

Map space composition is the first step in ship route planning. In this study, a map modeling method for path planning is proposed. This method incorporates the safety margin based on the theory of geographic space existing in coastal waters, maneuvering space according to ship characteristics, and the psychological buffer space of a ship navigator. First, the obstacle area was segmented using the binary method—a segmentation method—based on the international standard electronic chart image. Next, the margin space was incorporated through the morphological algorithm for the obstacle area. Finally, to minimize the space lost during the route search, the boundary simplification of the obstacle area was performed through the concave hull method. The experimental results of the proposed method resulted in a map that minimized the area lost due to obstacles. In addition, it was found that the distance and path-finding time were reduced compared to the conventional convex hull method. The study shows that the map modeling method is feasible, and that it can be applied to path planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intelligent Sensing Technology of Transportation System)

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15 pages, 2229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Heuristic Algorithms in Identification of Parameters of Anomalous Diffusion Model Based on Measurements from Sensors

by Rafał Brociek , Agata Wajda and Damian Słota

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031722 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

In recent times, fractional calculus has gained popularity in various types of engineering applications. Very often, the mathematical model describing a given phenomenon consists of a differential equation with a fractional derivative. As numerous studies present, the use of the fractional derivative instead [...] Read more.

In recent times, fractional calculus has gained popularity in various types of engineering applications. Very often, the mathematical model describing a given phenomenon consists of a differential equation with a fractional derivative. As numerous studies present, the use of the fractional derivative instead of the classical derivative allows for more accurate modeling of some processes. A numerical solution of anomalous heat conduction equation with Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative over space is presented in this paper. First, a differential scheme is provided to solve the direct problem. Then, the inverse problem is considered, which consists in identifying model parameters such as: thermal conductivity, order of derivative and heat transfer. Data on the basis of which the inverse problem is solved are the temperature values on the right boundary of the considered space. To solve the problem a functional describing the error of the solution is created. By determining the minimum of this functional, unknown parameters of the model are identified. In order to find a solution, selected heuristic algorithms are presented and compared. The following meta-heuristic algorithms are described and used in the paper: Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) for continous function, Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (BOA), Dynamic Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (DBOA) and Aquila Optimize (AO). The accuracy of the presented algorithms is illustrated by examples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectures, Protocols and Algorithms of Sensor Networks)

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16 pages, 5686 KB

Open AccessArticle

Technology Acceptance Model for Exoskeletons for Rehabilitation of the Upper Limbs from Therapists’ Perspectives

by Beatrice Luciani, Francesco Braghin, Alessandra Laura Giulia Pedrocchi and Marta Gandolla

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1721; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031721 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5799

Abstract

Over the last few years, exoskeletons have been demonstrated to be useful tools for supporting the execution of neuromotor rehabilitation sessions. However, they are still not very present in hospitals. Therapists tend to be wary of this type of technology, thus reducing its [...] Read more.

Over the last few years, exoskeletons have been demonstrated to be useful tools for supporting the execution of neuromotor rehabilitation sessions. However, they are still not very present in hospitals. Therapists tend to be wary of this type of technology, thus reducing its acceptability and, therefore, its everyday use in clinical practice. The work presented in this paper investigates a novel point of view that is different from that of patients, which is normally what is considered for similar analyses. Through the realization of a technology acceptance model, we investigate the factors that influence the acceptability level of exoskeletons for rehabilitation of the upper limbs from therapists’ perspectives. We analyzed the data collected from a pool of 55 physiotherapists and physiatrists through the distribution of a questionnaire. Pearson’s correlation and multiple linear regression were used for the analysis. The relations between the variables of interest were also investigated depending on participants’ age and experience with technology. The model built from these data demonstrated that the perceived usefulness of a robotic system, in terms of time and effort savings, was the first factor influencing therapists’ willingness to use it. Physiotherapists’ perception of the importance of interacting with an exoskeleton when carrying out an enhanced therapy session increased if survey participants already had experience with this type of rehabilitation technology, while their distrust and the consideration of others’ opinions decreased. The conclusions drawn from our analyses show that we need to invest in making this technology better known to the public—in terms of education and training—if we aim to make exoskeletons genuinely accepted and usable by therapists. In addition, integrating exoskeletons with multi-sensor feedback systems would help provide comprehensive information about the patients’ condition and progress. This can help overcome the gap that a robot creates between a therapist and the patient’s human body, reducing the fear that specialists have of this technology, and this can demonstrate exoskeletons’ utility, thus increasing their perceived level of usefulness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors for Functional Mapping: Techniques, Methods, Experimental and Medical Applications)

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18 pages, 8043 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Quantification of Activities Common to Intensive Care Patients; Development and Validation of a Dual-Accelerometer-Based Algorithm

by Yvonne Dikkema, Noor Mouton, Koen Gerrits, Tim Valk, Mariëlle van der Steen-Diepenrink, Hans Eshuis, Han Houdijk, Cees van der Schans, Anuschka Niemeijer and Marianne Nieuwenhuis

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1720; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031720 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2436

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop and validate an algorithm that can identify the type, frequency, and duration of activities common to intensive care (IC) patients. Ten healthy participants wore two accelerometers on their chest and leg while performing 14 activities [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to develop and validate an algorithm that can identify the type, frequency, and duration of activities common to intensive care (IC) patients. Ten healthy participants wore two accelerometers on their chest and leg while performing 14 activities clustered into four protocols (i.e., natural, strict, healthcare provider, and bed cycling). A video served as the reference standard, with two raters classifying the type and duration of all activities. This classification was reliable as intraclass correlations were all above 0.76 except for walking in the healthcare provider protocol, (0.29). The data of four participants were used to develop and optimize the algorithm by adjusting body-segment angles and rest-activity-threshold values based on percentage agreement (%Agr) with the reference. The validity of the algorithm was subsequently assessed using the data from the remaining six participants. %Agr of the algorithm versus the reference standard regarding lying, sitting activities, and transitions was 95%, 74%, and 80%, respectively, for all protocols except transitions with the help of a healthcare provider, which was 14–18%. For bed cycling, %Agr was 57–76%. This study demonstrated that the developed algorithm is suitable for identifying and quantifying activities common for intensive care patients. Knowledge on the (in)activity of these patients and their impact will optimize mobilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wearables)

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14 pages, 4657 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rational Resampling Ratio as Enhancement to Shaft Imbalance Detection

by Adam Jablonski

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1719; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031719 - 3 Feb 2023

Viewed by 2056

Abstract

Trend analysis is one of the most powerful techniques for monitoring the technical condition of individual mechanical components of rotating machinery. It is based on extraction of characteristic signal components according to kinetostatic configuration of the machine drivetrain. It has been used for [...] Read more.

Trend analysis is one of the most powerful techniques for monitoring the technical condition of individual mechanical components of rotating machinery. It is based on extraction of characteristic signal components according to kinetostatic configuration of the machine drivetrain. It has been used for decades and is well-understood. However, classical trend analysis is based on some assumptions which have resulted from the limited computational power of embedded systems years ago. This paper tries to answer a question on whether the assumption of a single signal resampling path for calculation of signal components generated by shafts with rational transmission ratio is valid. The study was conducted using an extensive imbalance test on a medium-power test rig. The paper originally demonstrates that application of an advanced resampling algorithm does not significantly influence the overall trend increase, but it is of utmost importance when trend variance is of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Monitoring, Diagnosis, Prognosis and Control in Electromechanical Systems)

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10 pages, 3127 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sagnac Effect Compensations and Locked States in a Ring Laser Gyroscope

by Woo-Seok Choi, Kyu-Min Shim, Kyung-Ho Chong, Jun-Eon An, Cheon-Joong Kim and Byung-Yoon Park

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1718; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031718 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6725

Abstract

Frequency lock-in-induced deadband phenomena are major problems of ring laser gyroscopes (RLGs), which deteriorate linear responses to changes in the applied rotation rate. In this work, the frequency lock-in phenomenon occurring in the RLG was successfully investigated by compensating for the Sagnac effect [...] Read more.

Frequency lock-in-induced deadband phenomena are major problems of ring laser gyroscopes (RLGs), which deteriorate linear responses to changes in the applied rotation rate. In this work, the frequency lock-in phenomenon occurring in the RLG was successfully investigated by compensating for the Sagnac effect through frequency analysis using a newly defined error function. Integrative and generalized viewpoints from the analyzed results provide new possibilities for relevant performance improvements of optical gyroscopes, as well as a deeper understanding of locked states in principle aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)

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43 pages, 2386 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Low-Cost Sensors for Monitoring Coastal Climate Hazards: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Tasneem Ahmed, Leo Creedon and Salem S. Gharbia

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1717; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031717 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7523

Abstract

Unequivocal change in the climate system has put coastal regions around the world at increasing risk from climate-related hazards. Monitoring the coast is often difficult and expensive, resulting in sparse monitoring equipment lacking in sufficient temporal and spatial coverage. Thus, low-cost methods to [...] Read more.

Unequivocal change in the climate system has put coastal regions around the world at increasing risk from climate-related hazards. Monitoring the coast is often difficult and expensive, resulting in sparse monitoring equipment lacking in sufficient temporal and spatial coverage. Thus, low-cost methods to monitor the coast at finer temporal and spatial resolution are imperative for climate resilience along the world’s coasts. Exploiting such low-cost methods for the development of early warning support could be invaluable to coastal settlements. This paper aims to provide the most up-to-date low-cost techniques developed and used in the last decade for monitoring coastal hazards and their forcing agents via systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature in three scientific databases: Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect. A total of 60 papers retrieved from these databases through the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) protocol were analysed in detail to yield different categories of low-cost sensors. These sensors span the entire domain for monitoring coastal hazards, as they focus on monitoring coastal zone characteristics (e.g., topography), forcing agents (e.g., water levels), and the hazards themselves (e.g., coastal flooding). It was found from the meta-analysis of the retrieved papers that terrestrial photogrammetry, followed by aerial photogrammetry, was the most widely used technique for monitoring different coastal hazards, mainly coastal erosion and shoreline change. Different monitoring techniques are available to monitor the same hazard/forcing agent, for instance, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), time-lapse cameras, and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for monitoring coastal morphological changes such as beach erosion, creating opportunities to not only select but also combine different techniques to meet specific monitoring objectives. The sensors considered in this paper are useful for monitoring the most pressing challenges in coastal zones due to the changing climate. Such a review could be extended to encompass more sensors and variables in the future due to the systematic approach of this review. This study is the first to systematically review a wide range of low-cost sensors available for the monitoring of coastal zones in the context of changing climate and is expected to benefit coastal researchers and managers to choose suitable low-cost sensors to meet their desired objectives for the regular monitoring of the coast to increase climate resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in 2023)

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