Author Contributions
Conceptualization, B.R.; methodology, B.R.; software, B.R.; validation, B.R. and T.S.; formal analysis, B.R. and T.S.; investigation, B.R. and T.S.; resources, R.O.S., T.S. and B.R.; data curation, B.R. and R.O.S.; writing—original draft preparation, B.R.; writing—review and editing, R.O.S., T.S., and B.R.; visualization, B.R.; supervision, R.O.S. and T.S.; project administration, B.R.; funding acquisition, B.R.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Electrode placement of the four-electrode setup with an additional reference electrode. The current electrodes (red) placed on sternocleidomastoideus close to the ear introduce a sinusoidal current of 50 kHz. The measurement electrodes (green) placed on each side of the larynx measure the voltage over the enclosed tissue. The reference electrode (gray) is used to suppress common-mode disturbances.
Figure 1.
Electrode placement of the four-electrode setup with an additional reference electrode. The current electrodes (red) placed on sternocleidomastoideus close to the ear introduce a sinusoidal current of 50 kHz. The measurement electrodes (green) placed on each side of the larynx measure the voltage over the enclosed tissue. The reference electrode (gray) is used to suppress common-mode disturbances.
Figure 2.
BI and EMG measurement of a saliva swallow. The swallow preparation phase (green background) shows some variation in the BI data caused by tongue movements from collecting saliva. The oral swallowing phase (red background) displays a small peak in the BI data, which continuously transitions to the BI swallow valley caused by the larynx elevation during the pharyngeal swallowing phase (blue background). The vertical line defines the time of the swallow onset marked by an expert, shortly after the start of the pharyngeal swallowing phase.
Figure 2.
BI and EMG measurement of a saliva swallow. The swallow preparation phase (green background) shows some variation in the BI data caused by tongue movements from collecting saliva. The oral swallowing phase (red background) displays a small peak in the BI data, which continuously transitions to the BI swallow valley caused by the larynx elevation during the pharyngeal swallowing phase (blue background). The vertical line defines the time of the swallow onset marked by an expert, shortly after the start of the pharyngeal swallowing phase.
Figure 3.
A visualization of the cleaned EMG (EMG), the envelope EMG (eEMG), and the BI of a single swallow for EMG-based swallow onset detection. The black section of the eEMG trace highlights the w samples of eEMG that exceed . The red vertical line denotes the manually marked swallow onset, while the black vertical line denotes the time of the detected swallow onset. The light red area marks the period with disabled onset detection that starts at a detected onset.
Figure 3.
A visualization of the cleaned EMG (EMG), the envelope EMG (eEMG), and the BI of a single swallow for EMG-based swallow onset detection. The black section of the eEMG trace highlights the w samples of eEMG that exceed . The red vertical line denotes the manually marked swallow onset, while the black vertical line denotes the time of the detected swallow onset. The light red area marks the period with disabled onset detection that starts at a detected onset.
Figure 4.
Left: Visualization of the BI data vectors of swallow onsets (12) and non-swallow events (34) in a healthy subject, shifted to zero at the time zero of potential swallow onsets. Right: Visualization of the tEMG data vectors of swallow onsets and non-swallows shifted to zero at the time zero of potential swallow onsets.
Figure 4.
Left: Visualization of the BI data vectors of swallow onsets (12) and non-swallow events (34) in a healthy subject, shifted to zero at the time zero of potential swallow onsets. Right: Visualization of the tEMG data vectors of swallow onsets and non-swallows shifted to zero at the time zero of potential swallow onsets.
Figure 5.
A visualization of EMG data vectors of swallow onsets and non-swallow events in a healthy subject preceding the potential swallow onsets at time zero. The left subplot shows the EMG vectors of 12 swallow onsets (blue), and the right subplot shows the EMG vectors of 34 non-swallow events (green).
Figure 5.
A visualization of EMG data vectors of swallow onsets and non-swallow events in a healthy subject preceding the potential swallow onsets at time zero. The left subplot shows the EMG vectors of 12 swallow onsets (blue), and the right subplot shows the EMG vectors of 34 non-swallow events (green).
Figure 6.
Illustration of the overlap between two Log-normal probability-density functions and .
Figure 6.
Illustration of the overlap between two Log-normal probability-density functions and .
Figure 7.
Visualization of sensitivity (green dots), precision (red triangles), and score (blue dots) of BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets for individual dysphagia patients. A black line connects the sensitivity and the precision of each patient to visualize the span width between the scores.
Figure 7.
Visualization of sensitivity (green dots), precision (red triangles), and score (blue dots) of BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets for individual dysphagia patients. A black line connects the sensitivity and the precision of each patient to visualize the span width between the scores.
Table 1.
The main properties of data series I to IV. Data series I to III contain data from healthy subjects, and data series IV consists of measurements from dysphagia patients. The table contains the number and sex of subjects, the mean age of the subjects with the standard deviation in brackets, the number of swallows, the cumulative duration of the measurements, and a brief commentary on the research intention for data series I to IV.
Table 1.
The main properties of data series I to IV. Data series I to III contain data from healthy subjects, and data series IV consists of measurements from dysphagia patients. The table contains the number and sex of subjects, the mean age of the subjects with the standard deviation in brackets, the number of swallows, the cumulative duration of the measurements, and a brief commentary on the research intention for data series I to IV.
Data Series | Subjects | Age | Swallows | Duration | Commentary |
---|
I | 20 (8♀, 12♂) | 30.5 (7.7) | 965 |
| movements |
II | 15 (4♀, 11♂) | 29.0 (4.5) | 2044 |
| repeatability |
III | 9 (7♀, 2♂) | 38.6 (9.4) | 130 |
| investigators |
IV | 41 (15♀, 26♂) | 63.4 (13.8) | 704 |
| patients |
Table 2.
The hyperparameter space for the random forest classifier, consisting of the optimization method, the hyperparameter sampling distribution, the hyperparameter name, and the range of the hyperparameter.
Table 2.
The hyperparameter space for the random forest classifier, consisting of the optimization method, the hyperparameter sampling distribution, the hyperparameter name, and the range of the hyperparameter.
Optimization | Hyperparameter | Distribution | Range |
---|
grid search | weight1 | n.a. | |
random search | min_impurity_decrease | uniform distribution | |
random search | ccp_alpha | uniform distribution | |
random search | min_weight_fraction_leaf | uniform distribution | |
random search | max_samples | uniform distribution | |
Table 3.
Scores to evaluate the BI-based preselection of swallow onsets with the parameters: , , and = . The mean detection delay , the standard deviation of the detection delay, the ratio of swallow to non-swallow events , and the sensitivity are presented for data series I, II, III, and IV. The last column contains the average scores calculated from the columns for data series I, II, III, and IV.
Table 3.
Scores to evaluate the BI-based preselection of swallow onsets with the parameters: , , and = . The mean detection delay , the standard deviation of the detection delay, the ratio of swallow to non-swallow events , and the sensitivity are presented for data series I, II, III, and IV. The last column contains the average scores calculated from the columns for data series I, II, III, and IV.
Data Series | [-] | [-] | [s] |
---|
I | 0.993 | 0.139 | 0.031 (0.068) |
II | 0.998 | 0.256 | 0.044 (0.076) |
III | 0.977 | 0.199 | 0.048 (0.056) |
IV | 0.98 | 0.114 | 0.033 (0.1) |
Mean I, II, III, IV | 0.992 | 0.191 | 0.039 (0.079) |
Table 4.
Test results for EMG-based detection of swallow onsets, concerning the highest median score. The table presents the median and interquartile range of the sensitivity, precision, and score for data series I, II, III, and IV. A LOSO cross-validation determined the optimal parameters with respect to the maximal score while limiting the mean detection delay to the mean detection delay of the BI/EMG-based DoSO. The last column displays and , describing the timing of the EMG-based DoSO.
Table 4.
Test results for EMG-based detection of swallow onsets, concerning the highest median score. The table presents the median and interquartile range of the sensitivity, precision, and score for data series I, II, III, and IV. A LOSO cross-validation determined the optimal parameters with respect to the maximal score while limiting the mean detection delay to the mean detection delay of the BI/EMG-based DoSO. The last column displays and , describing the timing of the EMG-based DoSO.
Data Series | Sensitivity [-] | Precision [-] | Score [-] | [s] |
---|
I | 0.84 [0.131] | 0.425 [0.147] | 0.553 [0.135] | 0.019 (0.172) |
II | 0.759 [0.235] | 0.603 [0.463] | 0.619 [0.199] | 0.039 (0.195) |
III | 0.625 [0.292] | 0.455 [0.509] | 0.529 [0.127] | 0.022 (0.182) |
IV | 0.5 [0.678] | 0.197 [0.484] | 0.289 [0.496] | 0.018 (0.203) |
Table 5.
Test results for BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets concerning the median maximum. The table presents the median and interquartile range of the sensitivity, precision, and score for data series I, II, III, and IV regarding the maximal score reached by the hyperparameter optimization using a nested LOSO cross-validation. The last column displays and , describing the timing.
Table 5.
Test results for BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets concerning the median maximum. The table presents the median and interquartile range of the sensitivity, precision, and score for data series I, II, III, and IV regarding the maximal score reached by the hyperparameter optimization using a nested LOSO cross-validation. The last column displays and , describing the timing.
Data Series | Sensitivity [-] | Precision [-] | Score [-] | Specificity [-] | [s] | |
---|
I | 0.827 [0.129] | 0.656 [0.253] | 0.705 [0.191] | 0.945 [0.064] | 0.031 (0.068) | 2.0 |
II | 0.875 [0.139] | 0.75 [0.183] | 0.826 [0.094] | 0.956 [0.139] | 0.044 (0.076) | 0.5 |
III | 0.698 [0.277] | 0.846 [0.159] | 0.732 [0.184] | 0.943 [0.034] | 0.048 (0.056) | 1.5 |
IV | 0.56 [0.482] | 0.5 [0.321] | 0.546 [0.405] | 0.943 [0.084] | 0.033 (0.1) | 2.0 |
Table 6.
Test results for BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets concerning the median maximum with mixed data for classifier training. The first row presents the classification performance for training data extracted from data series I to III and test data extracted from data series IV. The second row contains the classification performance for training data extracted from data series I to IV and testing with the data of one subject of data series IV excluded from the training.
Table 6.
Test results for BI/EMG-based detection of swallow onsets concerning the median maximum with mixed data for classifier training. The first row presents the classification performance for training data extracted from data series I to III and test data extracted from data series IV. The second row contains the classification performance for training data extracted from data series I to IV and testing with the data of one subject of data series IV excluded from the training.
Training | Test | Sensitivity [-] | Precision [-] | Score [-] | Specificity [-] | |
---|
I, II, III | IV | 0.544 [0.539] | 0.556 [0.458] | 0.556 [0.405] | 0.949 [0.067] | 1.5 |
I, II, III, IV | IV | 0.603 [0.457] | 0.455 [0.333] | 0.518 [0.378] | 0.925 [0.083] | 1.0 |