1. Introduction
Two-phase or gas–liquid flow is commonly encountered in industrial applications. In particular, annular flow is essential for effective heat transfer and fluid management in many processes, including oil transport, heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, nuclear reactors, chemical processing, geothermal energy, refrigeration, air conditioning, and cryogenic systems [
1]. Increased knowledge of annular flow can help optimize pipeline transport, improve heat transfer in exchangers and steam systems, and affect chemical reactions in processing. Therefore, by understanding and controlling annular flow dynamics, industries can improve performance, energy efficiency, and safety in a wide range of applications. For example, annular flow is probably one of the most usual types of two-phase flows in fluid dynamics, particularly in scenarios like refrigeration systems, boiling water reactors (BWRs), and passive safety mechanisms such as passive containment cooling condensers in BWRs and certain types of small modular reactors (SMRs) [
2,
3]. Annular flow significantly affects heat transfer within these systems [
4]. Fluid dynamics of two-phase flow systems refers to the research field that investigates and studies the behavior of two-phase fluids to improve their design and optimize facilities and installation. Annular flow has been a focus of study in two-phase flow for the past 50 years because the heat transfer in many two-phase systems takes place in this regime. A flow with a small amount of liquid moving through the walls of a conduct forming an annulus and with a gaseous core moving through it at a different velocity is defined as an annular flow. In general, depending on the relative velocity of the liquid film and the gas core, waves of different types form at the interface between the two phases [
5]. In addition, the shear stress at the interface can tear off small drops from the crest of these waves, which are then dragged by the core gas flow [
6]. In this regime, the liquid film contains small gas bubbles, while the core gas flow drags small droplets previously separated from the liquid film [
4].
Accurately measuring the thickness of the liquid film using different sensors and techniques is crucial in the abovementioned applications. However, it can be challenging to get an accurate measurement due to the distortion caused by interfacial waves. There are various types of waves at the interface between the phases, with the most important being disturbance waves (DWs) and ripple waves (RWs), especially DWs [
7,
8,
9]. The first type of waves, DWs, are characterized by having a large amplitude compared with the average thickness of the film, which is up to five times greater. They are periodic and constant throughout the section of the circular conduct. In contrast, RWs are more chaotic, and they are neither periodic nor exhibit coherent behavior through the pipe section.
Various methods have been explored and applied to address the difficulties in obtaining a quantitative measure of film thickness. An appreciable number of experimental methodologies have been employed over past decades for localized measurements at specific spatial positions while concurrently capturing temporal evolution. However, almost all of these methodologies can be classified into four major groups, although the most widely used are electrical and optical procedures [
10,
11]. Electrical techniques make it easy to obtain localized measurements with good spatial resolution. It is possible to vary the position of the measurement by relocating the probe to various positions within the installation [
11,
12,
13,
14]. One of the drawbacks of these intrusive methods is that, as the film thickness is disturbed by its interfacial waves, the probe device can disturb the flow at the measurement point; therefore, non-intrusive methods have been gaining ground in recent years. The main techniques used in film thickness measurement are summarized in
Figure 1.
Conductance probes are the most commonly used electric method. In early work performed by Chu and Dukler [
15,
16], the authors measured the film thickness for flows of practical interest and different sizes of tubes. The interesting work of Ju et al. [
17] is also worth mentioning. They also used this type of sensor in an 8 × 8 rod bundle and compared the measurements with flush-mounted conductance probes having two circular electrodes.
Non-intrusive methods include radioactive methods, such as those presented by Skjæraasen et al. [
18], who employed X-rays to reconstruct the film thickness profile of an annular flow that could be applied for either two or three phases. A further example of a measurement method is that used by Wang et al. [
19], who used an acoustic method. The ultrasonic echo resonance main frequency method is suitable for measuring thicknesses over particle image methods or conductance probes. However, electrical and optical procedures are the main methods used to obtain localized measurements at a given position and time.
Optical methods are modern techniques that are widely used to obtain results over time in a spatially distributed manner [
20,
21,
22]. These non-invasive methods typically use high-speed cameras with high spatial resolution and can capture many frames per second. This allows the thickness of the liquid film in annular flow to be determined. These methods have evolved from localized techniques and have reached a high level of development. The use of optical methods is common due to their simplicity compared with other methods, and they provide a significant number of measurements. However, when applied to annular flow, they have some drawbacks, such as distortion caused by light reflection at the irregular interface between the two phases, gas and liquid, which is not uniform and contains many waves. In addition, the pipe wall can distort film images.
One of the most utilized optical methods in contemporary research is Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF). This method, along with its various techniques, is widely used. Employing this technique necessitates the introduction of a fluorescent substance into the liquid phase in the form of fluorescent dopant dye, typically Rhodamine B or 6G. Subsequently, this fluorescent substance is illuminated by a laser plane beam within the measurement region. Rhodamine B is an organic compound that fluoresces with an excitation wavelength
and an emission wavelength
. Similarly, Rhodamine 6G exhibits fluorescence with an excitation wavelength
, which is close to the second harmonic of the Nd—YAG laser at 532 nm, and an emission wavelength
. The critical aspect of this technique lies in the wavelength difference between the incoming laser light and the emitted light from the fluorescent particles. By incorporating a filter at the digital high-speed camera to eliminate laser wavelengths, it becomes feasible to eliminate light rays originating from the laser source and entering the camera sensor. This process yields clear images of the liquid film [
20]. Consequently, high-speed cameras can be utilized to capture images of the liquid layer, which is rendered distinguishable by the phenomenon of fluorescence explained above. The Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) technique employs a laser sheet generated by a series of lenses, producing a planar laser sheet, as depicted in
Figure 2.
The different researchers that used these techniques identified some limitations and difficulties, mainly in the transition from interpreting information from raw images to reaching the final variable tendencies and conclusions. To achieve this, researchers have used different methods based on LIF. Xue et al. [
11,
12,
13] and Alekseenko et al. [
22,
23,
24] have done exhaustive work in this area. In the applied method, the species excited by the laser beam will de-excite after only a few nanoseconds to microseconds and emit light at a wavelength larger than the excitation wavelength. Using a laser and its position relative to the high-speed camera determine the names to these sub-versions of LIF, such as PLIF.
Schubring et al. [
25] used the PLIF methodology to provide direct visualization of the liquid film in upward vertical air–water annular flow and its image procession to reproduce the distribution of film heights. However, strongly curved interfaces relate to such flows where the two phases interact continuously. PLIF and Normal PLIF (PLIF90 or N-PLIF) present great challenges for liquid film thickness measurements in circular tubes. The two phases are in continuous interaction and present strongly curved interfaces, which act as mirrors. The refraction phenomenon results in several types of errors, as explained by Charogiannis et al. [
26].
The PLIF method has been improved in recent years using two approaches. One of these is the Brightness-Based Laser-Induced Fluorescence (BBLIF) technique, developed by Alekseenko et al. [
27]. This technique involves measuring the brightness of fluorescent light emitted by a dye in a liquid and converting it into film thickness. This is achieved through a relationship between brightness and thickness, considering factors such as absorption coefficient and interfacial reflection index and compensating for non-uniform laser illumination. BBLIF has been applied in cylindrical pipes and rectangular ducts with varying degrees of success. Although it is effective in measuring film thickness in flat regions, it is less sensitive in thicker regions and can be susceptible to errors from light reflections in complex or agitated flows.
A new technique called Structural Planar-Laser-Induced Fluorescence (S-PLIF) is currently being researched. This technique utilizes a structured light plane created using a Ronchi ruling plate. The Ronchi ruling plate is an optical device that has been developed with high precision, definition, and contrast. It is placed between the uniform laser light plane and the pipe, causing the light to arrive in parallel and alternating bright and dark streaks. By analyzing the gradient of these lines in the liquid film, it is possible to determine the true gas–liquid interface. Charogiannis et al. [
26] developed a more complete version of this technique. In their paper, the authors address the main errors associated with the different techniques and how S-PLIF and the angle of inclination of the measurements help to reduce them.
Researchers have proposed new methods to improve the alignment between the laser and the camera, as it has a significant impact on measurement accuracy. One such method is the Acute PLIF (A-PLIF), as discussed by Tianyu et al. [
28]. The authors use this nomenclature, although it is common to use PLIF plus the angle only (e.g., for 40°, it would be used PLIF40). The method involves placing both the incident laser sheet and the camera below the bottom interface of a plate, forming an acute laser optical path and camera alignment. Ting et al. [
13] discussed the conventional PLIF90 method for annular flow measurements in axial water film and measurements where the angle between the laser and the camera was set to 40° (PLIF40). Other laser beam–camera alignments have also been proven effective, such as PLIF70 [
11,
12,
13].
Rivera et al. [
20] highlighted the challenges of refraction when measuring annular flow within a pipe. Their study mentions using the liquid box technique to mitigate these challenges. The above studies provide insights into different techniques used for measuring annular flow. Refractive Index Matching (RIM) has been widely used in optic measurements, as in Thorben et al. [
29], who found that the method prevents optical distortion owing to light refraction and reflection at the interfaces by observing microscopic flow in a microchannel.
This paper presents a comparison between optical methods of measuring film thickness and interfacial wave characteristics at the CAPELON facility. This comparison helps to test the performance of each technique analyzed. Therefore, the advantages and disadvantages of each technique can be explored, as well as highlighting their potential limitations. The experimental mock-up is located at the Thermal-Hydraulics and Nuclear laboratory of the Institute for Energy Engineering at the Polytechnic University of Valencia. The experiments carried out consisted of the implementation and analysis of three variants of the PLIF method. In addition, the working fluid and the material of the test section have the same refractive index, which reduces the consequences of these undesirable optical effects. In the first technique, the test section is filmed directly using a high-speed camera. This method applies the commonly used 40° angle between the laser illumination and the camera (PLIF nRIM40). Recording with this angle is considered to minimize adverse optical phenomena, such as reflections and refractions at the air–water interface between or even the existence of the phenomenon of total reflection phenomena that hinder the subsequent image processing, as analyzed by Xue et al. [
12,
13,
14]. In any case, due to the different values of the refractive index between the liquid film and the surrounding medium, the aforementioned phenomena of reflection and refraction of light mean that the measurements taken must be corrected [
13,
28]. The opposite is the case when a water box is placed between the test section and the camera so that the recording is carried out perpendicular to the illumination. Therefore, there are no optical phenomena that necessitate corrections of the measurements (PLIF RIM 90). However, for the precise positioning of the interface, reflections may occur at close positions owing to the liquid–air changes that the rays coming from the illumination may undergo in areas close to the measurement region; i.e., the so-called non-coherent interface error [
26]. As will be discussed in detail, to minimize these phenomena, measurements can also be taken at an angle that differs from the right angle between the illumination and the camera, usually also 40° (PLIF RIM40). In this case, the correction to be made to the measurements will be motivated precisely by the existence of this viewing angle of 40° between the camera and the measuring section.
In accordance with the objectives described above, this paper is organized as follows: firstly,
Section 2 describes the CAPELON facility, both the facility itself, including its instrumentation, and all aspects related to the PLIF measurements;
Section 3 focuses on the description of the methodology used, particularly the PLF RIM90, PLIF RIM40, and PLIF nRIM40 configurations, along with the presentation of the experimental matrix, showing the image processing under all three configurations and providing an estimation of the major sources of experimental errors;
Section 4 shows the results obtained using the three PLIF methods and provides a discussion of the results, analyzing their differences and trying to explain their causes; and finally,
Section 5 displays the major conclusions, in which the advantages and drawbacks of each method are shown for the studied cases.
2. Experimental Apparatus
In this section, the specifications of the CAPELON facility are presented, wherein an experimental series has been conducted to compare various PLIF measurement techniques for the annular flow phenomenon. The equipment used to characterize mass flow rate and ambient and liquid temperatures is included. In addition, the instrumentation employed to perform measurements using different PLIF techniques will be detailed. Optical corrections of refraction and reflection effects, which are necessary to achieve accurate thickness measurements, will be addressed. This includes subpixel correction of the interfacial boundaries, as well as the angle between the laser and CMOS camera, aimed at minimizing errors induced by refraction and reflection, as documented in [
13,
30,
31].
2.1. Instrumentation Used in the CAPELON Facility
The experimental facility CAPELON (CAracterización de PElícula ONdulatoria, Wavy Film Characterization in English) is specifically designed to generate downward annular flow under free-fall conditions. A liquid film descends attached to the walls of a tube, while a mass of air remains essentially stationary in the center. The phenomena reproduced resemble those found in steam generator tubes during certain accidental scenarios and are akin to the effects observed in passive cooling systems of third-generation reactors or SMRs. They are also manifested in various industrial processes involving heat transfer applications through shell-and-tube heat exchangers. In the experimental procedures of this study, there is no incorporation of heated fluids, which means that the heat transfer between the fluids or the wall is not considered. Results obtained using water as the working fluid at different mass flow rates will be presented.
The setup configuration of the CAPELON facility is depicted in
Figure 3. In terms of dimensions, the length of the tube from the water injection point to the image capture section height is 2 m, with an inner diameter of 16 mm and an outer diameter of 19 mm. The tube material of the facility is fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), which shares the same refractive index as water. This material is selected to mitigate light refractions during camera captures. The circuit propels water using a pump controlled by a frequency inverter, which regulates the flow rate for conducting various experiments. Following the pump stage, corresponding sensors are installed to measure flow rate and temperature to ensure a controlled environment. In addition, several devices, such as regulating and safety valves, filters, and additional apparatus, are incorporated throughout the circuit to serve diverse functions. Water is directed toward the upper reservoir, which contains flow direction grids, permitting fluid movement solely in the vertical direction to prevent disturbances during overflow in the tube. The entrance section of the duct is precisely leveled horizontally. The lower reservoir is open, allowing air to escape and preventing water from backing up. From this point, the water is collected again by the pump to be recirculated.
To conduct measurements using the various PLIF techniques, a refractive index correction box is positioned at the measurement region at the same height as the high-spee camera and laser. This correction box is an open tank with a cubic geometric arrangement traversed by the tube. The purpose of this tank is to minimize refractions to prevent distortions in the photographs taken using the high-speed camera.
2.2. PLIF Setup
To conduct measurements using direct visualization systems, specifically employing PLIF techniques, several considerations and the characteristics of the experimental setup must be taken into account. Firstly, to mitigate refractions between the tube and the water comprising the annular flow, FEP is employed as the tube material. This is a specific material with almost the same refractive index as water. While water has a refraction index of 1.33, the FEP tube has a 1.34 refraction index (0.8% difference). Additionally, the water in the setup is dyed using rhodamine B, inducing a change in the wavelength of light emitted by the laser when traversing this medium. As the amount of rhodamine is negligible compared with the water, a change in the refraction index is not considered. The laser beam is directed with a very thin thickness by combining two lenses to capture the film section. A filter is applied in the camera to eliminate wavelengths below 580 nm, thereby removing the laser beam that has not passed through the water.
Among the three PLIF variants studied, the non-RIM technique requires an index of refraction adjustment. To avoid this problem, an index of refraction correction box filled with water is employed. This ensures that both the exterior and interior of the tube are filled with water, creating a homogeneous medium in terms of refractive index for light passage. Although there is air between the camera and the correction box, the perpendicular arrangement of both components prevents light deviation.
The high-speed camera used in this study features high-end technical specifications. The model is pco.dimax HD and has features that include a maximum frame rate of 2128 fps at full resolution and a minimum exposure time of 1.5 µs. It offers a maximum resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels, and by reducing the Region of Interest (ROI), it achieves a maximum frame rate of 130,641 fps. The camera captures monochrome images with 16-bit tonal depth. In addition, the lens used has a focal length of 85 mm and a maximum aperture of f/1.4. The laser equipment utilized in this study operates at a wavelength of 532 nm and delivers a power output of 4 W. The specific model of the equipment is CNI MGL-N-532.
For the current experimental setup, the camera is configured with a frame rate of 2000 fps to capture sequences lasting 5 s. The ROI is set to an image size of 384 × 1080 pixels. The color temperature is adjusted to 5805 K, and the pixel depth range captured by the camera has been reduced to optimize the visible spectrum under operational conditions. This adjustment includes a 16-bit depth range where values ranging from 0 to 255 adequately capture information to determine contrast at the interface. To illuminate the liquid film, the laser equipment operates at 42% of its maximum power capacity.
5. Conclusions
The focus of this paper lies in the comparative analysis of three optical techniques utilizing Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence. The primary difference among the methodologies explored is the Refractive Index Matching, with one of the three techniques not complying with this requirement. Consequently, correction of the acquired images is necessary to ensure accurate measurement. An annular flow facility, CAPELON, is introduced to evaluate these techniques, complete with all required components to generate a downward liquid film for study. An overview of the three PLIF setups is provided, including two RIM configurations at 90° and 40° between the camera and laser, and the third employs a non-RIM approach at a 40-degree angle. A diverse range of liquid Reynolds numbers, spanning from 4200 to 10,400, is explored throughout the study. Based on Snell’s Law and geometric principles, the correction equation is described and applied to circular pipes.
Experimental data results obtained using PLIF RIM90, PLIF RIM40, and PLIF nRIM40 techniques are provided in the text, together with explanatory images. While RIM methods are widely employed in scientific research, their implementation can pose challenges, particularly in complex geometries. Despite slight disparities observed in specific cases, overall consistency is maintained across the techniques. The analysis of mean film thickness, disturbance wave height, and disturbance wave frequency show subtle differences, with variations being attributed primarily to flow conditions and hydrodynamic behavior rather than technique discrepancies. Error estimation based on both random and systematical errors shows inherent uncertainty in the measurements up to 10%. However, mean error values are close to 8.6% for the mean film thickness, 7.8% for the disturbance wave height, and 5.2% for the disturbance wave frequency. Considering all the analyses carried out, employing non-RIM techniques proves viable and reliable when the refraction distortion is properly corrected.