Improving Health Outcomes of Children through Effective Parenting: Model and Methods
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Design and Methods
2.1. Design and Methods for Developing the Smart and Secured Children Parenting Curriculum
2.2. Design and Methods for Pilot Testing of the Smart and Secured Children Parenting Curriculum
How The Brain Develops | Session 1 |
What Makes A Child’s Brain Develop and Grow? | Session 2 |
Watch Them Grow: Developmental Milestones | Session 3 |
Ways to Help Your Child’s Brain Thrive & Come Alive | Session 4 |
Brain Thrive & Come Alive: Watching TV Together! | Session 5 |
Brain Development Review & Defining Social and Emotional Health | Session 6 |
Critical Needs of Socially and Emotionally Healthy Children | Session 7 |
Ten Things to Do at Home Towards Social and Emotional Health | Session 8 |
Parents’ Self-Care and Nurturing | Session 9 |
Working with Challenging Behaviors Through Positive Discipline | Session 10 |
3. Results
3.1. Derived Conceptual Framework—Smart and Secured Children Model
Traditional Delivery | Conversepedia |
---|---|
The Professionals are experts and have all answers | Everyone is a learner—focus is to facilitate quality learning environment for all learners |
The expert professional teaches the parenting and parents are passive and sometimes are involved in questions and answers | The parents trained as leaders facilitate active conversations among parents to help them learn and take small doable actions of success weekly |
The setting is a classroom structure | The setting is a circle of up to 6 peer parents |
The classroom setting creates win or lose environment with levels of anxiety and insecurity | The supportive social learning setting creates secure collaborative motivation to learn and discover success for continuous improvement |
The expert covers the content and associated tests | The parent leaders facilitate conversations on SSC content with parents sharing real life application, experience and solutions |
Learning takes time since everyone is taught the same way with some parents learning and others not learning | Learning is intrinsic with parents improving their knowledge, beliefs and values as they self-develop and apply what they learn daily at home and lead their peers in the community to change parenting culture. |
Community Building by Parents
3.2. Results of Pilot Testing
Characteristics | N = 83 |
---|---|
Gender, Female (%) | 64.0 |
Educational Attainment (%) | |
<High School | 4.1 |
High School/GED | 28.6 |
Some College/Associate Degree | 40.8 |
Bachelor’s Degree | 16.3 |
>Bachelor’s Degree | 10.1 |
Employment Status (%) | |
Full-time | 34.0 |
Part-time | 20.0 |
Temporary Work/> 1 paid job | 4.0 |
Own Business | 16.0 |
Not Employed | 26.0 |
Family Income (%) | |
<$250 | 27.0 |
$250–$499 | 43.8 |
$500–$1,000 | 10.4 |
>$1,000 | 18.8 |
Areas of Improvement | Areas of Need Improvement |
---|---|
Communication skills with children | Parent development |
Time management | Time management |
Developed healthy lifestyle | Getting children to adopt modified behaviors |
Creating a safe and conducive learning environment at home | Keeping up with societal changes |
Parenting better | Help my children to eat healthy |
Share and talk about SSC with family, friends, and people on the bus, train and grocery stores |
3.3. Lessons Learned/Recommendations
- Due to very low variability in the 10 post-sessions evaluation, we learned from participants that the burden of data collection was overwhelming and did not add any value to their learning experiences. As a result, 10 post-sessions evaluation will be reduced to three; on the first day; after Part 1 Session 5 (half-way point in training) and the end of Part 2 Session 5.
- Based on the pilot data and input from the parents trained, there was a need to conduct a qualitative study to further the understanding of potential facilitators and barrier to increasing performance on the knowledge acquisition of the training material and self-development given the complexity of the subject matter. As a result of this lesson learned, the SSC parent graduates of the pilot study worked with SHLI to identify areas that needed improvement and delivery changes to optimize learning. These improvements will be made to the SSC content and delivery approach that will be implemented in the full demonstration phase of SSC that is scheduled to follow this pilot test
- Streamline data collection; explore use of technology, such as: mobile or web-technology, to collect and input data. The technology and approach to make it easier for data collection. Investment in iPads or tablet technology available to trainees during training might facilitate data collection. Importance of data collection should be stressed as was done in the pilot. Also, the trainers need to have a binder of all data collection form.
- The SSC program should devise effective methods of translating information shared by parents in their journals as well as other authentic practical solutions they shared in discussions into data for dissemination, validation and analysis.
- Though the men and women were separated, it was recommended that periodically, the men and women groups should interact to provide the gender perspective on some parenting issues both groups struggle with.
- Some of fathers felt some of the barriers to implementing what they learned from the SSC training were societal; for example legal restriction in being active in the child’s life. In these instances, adopting the model of drug courts, where the court might relax the restrictions if a father enrolls in a parenting training course and successfully completes the program, could provide beneficial experiences for the child.
- The confidence gained by the parents during the program needs to be encouraged and sustained with appropriate resources including use of technology to proactively spread the interventions.
- There needs to be annual conference for program alumni to reconnect and an opportunity to share how the program has changed their parenting skills and improved the health of their child or children.
3.4. Discussion
3.5. Implications of Study Findings
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Office of the Surgeon General (US); Center for Mental Health Services (US); National Institute of Mental Health (US). Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity: A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US): Rockville, MD, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Birken, C.S.; MacArthur, C. Socioeconomic status and injury risk in children. Paediatr Child Health 2004, 9, 323–325. [Google Scholar]
- Schreier, H.; Chen, E. Socioeconomic Status and the Health of Youth: A Multilevel, Multidomain Approach to Conceptualizing Pathways. Psychol. Bull. 2013, 139, 606–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hudson, C.G. Socioeconomic Status and Mental Illness: Tests of the Social Causation and Selection Hypotheses. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat. 2005, 75, 3–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belle, D. Poverty and women’s mental health. Amer. Psychol. 1990, 45, 385–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madigan, S.; Moran, G.; Schuengel, C.; Pederson, D.R.; Otten, R. Unresolved maternal attachment representations, disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment in infancy: Links to toddler behavior problems. J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. 2007, 48, 1042–1050. [Google Scholar]
- Weich, S.S.; Patterson, J.; Shaw, R.; Stewart-Brown, S. Family relationships in childhood and later psychopathology: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Br. J. Psychiat. 2009, 194, 392–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashiabi, G.S.; O’Neal, K.K. Children’s Health Status: Examining the Associations among Income Poverty, Material Hardship, and Parental Factors. PLoS ONE 2007, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eamon, M.K. The effects of poverty on childrens socioemotional development: An ecological systems analysis. Soc Work. 2001, 46, 256–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- US Department of Health and Human Services; US Department of Education; US Department of Justice. Report of the Surgeon General’s Conference on Children’s Mental Health: A National Action Agenda; US Department of Health and Human Services: Washington, DC, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Marmott. 2010. Available online: http://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/projects/fair-society-healthy-lives-the-marmot-review (accessed on 10 December 2013).
- Johnson, S.; Riley, A.; Granger, D.; Riis, J. The Science of Early Life Toxic Stress for Pediatric Practice and Advocacy. Pediatrics 2013, 131, 319–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shanks, T.; Robinson, C. Assets, Economic Opportunity and Toxic Stress: A Framework for Understanding Child and Educational Outcomes. Econom. Educ. Rev. 2013, 33, 154–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shonkoff, J. Leveraging the Biology of Adversity to Address the Roots of Disparities in Health and Development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109 (Suppl. 2), 17302–17307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katz, K.; Jarrett, M.; El-Mohandes, A.; Schneider, S.; McNeely-Johnson, D.; Kiely, M. Effectiveness of a Combined Home Visiting and Group Intervention for Low Income African American Mothers: The Pride in Parenting Program. Matern. Child Health J. 2011, 15, 75–84. [Google Scholar]
- Duncan, G.J.; Brooks-Gunn, J. Family Poverty, Welfare Reform, and Child Development. Child Dev. 2000, 71, 188–196. [Google Scholar]
- Goldberg, J.S.; Carlson, M.J. Parents’ Relationship Quality and Children’s Behavior in Married and Cohabiting Families; Online Paper; University of Wisconsin-Madison: Madison, WI, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Salomonsson, B.; Sleed, M. The Ages & Stages Questionnaire: Social–Emotional: A validation study of a mother-report questionnaire on a clinical mother–infant sample. Infant Mental Health J. 2010, 31, 412–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mason, Z. Maternal Attachment Feelings Mediate Between Maternal Reports of Depression, Infant Social–Emotional Development, and Parenting Stress. J. Reprod. Infant Psychol. 2011, 29, 382–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dexter, C.; Wong, K.; Stacks, A.; Beeghly, M.; Barnett, D. Parenting and Attachment among Low-Income African American and Caucasian Preschoolers. J. Family Psychol. 2013, 27, 629–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simkiss, D.E.; MacCallum, F.; Fan, E.; Oates, J.M.; Kimani, P.K.; Stewart-Brown, S. Validation of the Mothers Object Relations Scales in 2–4 Year Old Children and Comparison with the Child–Parent Relationship Scale. Health Qual. Life Outcomes 2013, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fledderus, M.; Bohlmeijer, E.T.; Smit, F.; Westerhof, G.J. Mental Health Promotion as a New Goal in Public Mental Health Care: A Randomized Controlled Trial of an Intervention Enhancing Psychological Flexibility. Amer. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 2372–2372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, K.; Hahn, L.; Gonzalez, P.; Henry, K.; Cerbana, C. An Evaluation of Partners in Parenting: A Parent Education Curriculum Implemented by County Extension Agents in Colorado. J. Extension. 2011, 49. Available online: http://www.joe.org/joe/2011august/rb3.php (accessed on 10 December 2013).
- Beckert, T.; Strom, P.; Strom, R. Adolescent Perception of Mothers’ Parenting Strengths and Needs: A Cross-cultural Approach to Curriculum Development for Parent Education. Adolescence 2007, 42, 487–500. [Google Scholar]
- Ruffolo, M.; Kuhn, M.; Evans, M. Developing a Parent—Professional Team Leadership Model in Group Work: Work with Families with Children Experiencing Behavioral and Emotional Problems. Soc. Work 2006, 51, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wagner, M.; Clayton, S.L. The Parents as Teachers Program: Results from two Demonstrations. Future Child. 1999, 9, 91–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olin, S.S.; Hoagwood, K.E.; Rodriguez, J.; Ramos, B.; Burton, G.; Penn, M.; Crowe, M.; Radigan, M.; Jensen, P.S. The Application of Behavior Change Theory to Family-Based Services: Improving Parent Empowerment in Children’s Mental Health. J. Child. Fam. Stud. 2010, 19, 462–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okafor, M.; Sarpong, D.F.; Satcher, D. Improving Social Determinants of Healthy Child Outcomes and Mental Health through Effective Parenting & Leadership. In Presented at the NIH 2012 Summit on Science of Eliminating Health Disparities: Building a Healthier Society, Integrating Science, Policy & Practice, Washington, DC, USA, 17–19 December 2012.
- Bowlby, J.; Ainsworth, M. The Origins of Attachment Theory. Dev. Psychol. 1992, 28, 759–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grusec, J.E. Social Learning Theory and Developmental Psychology: The Legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura. Dev. Psychol. 1992, 28, 776–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weiner, B. An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion. Psychol. Rev. 1985, 92, 548–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okafor, M. Conceptualization of ‘Conversepedia’ as a Development and Leadership Activation Approach to Behavior and Culture Change for Parents; Internal Document; Satcher Health Leadership Institute: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Keyes, C.L.M. The Mental Health Continuum: From Languishing to Flourishing in Life. J. Health Soc. Behav. 2002, 43, 207–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamers, S.M.; Westerhof, G.J.; Bohlmeijer, E.T.; Klooster, P.M.; Keyes, C.L. Evaluating the psychometric properties of the mental health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF). J. Clin. Psychol. 2011, 67, 99–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Masten, A.S.; Coatsworth, J.D. The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. Amer. Psychol. 1998, 53, 205–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wallerstein, N.; Duran, B. Community-Based Participatory Research Contributions to Intervention Research: The Intersection of Science and Practice to Improve Health Equity. Amer. J Public Health 2010, 100 (Suppl. 1), S40–S46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Snyder, L.B. Health Communication Campaigns and Their Impact on Behavior. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2007, 39 (Suppl.), S32–S40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perry, G.S.; Presley-Cantrell, L.R.; Dhingra, S. Addressing Mental Health Promotion in Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Amer. J Public Health 2010, 100, 2337–2339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Resnick, M.D.; Bearman, P.S.; Blum, R.W.; Bauman, K.E.; Harris, K.M.; Jones, J.; Tabor, J.; Beuhring, T.; Sieving, R.E.; Shew, M.; Ireland, M.; Bearinger, L.H.; Udry, J.R. Protecting Adolescents From Harm: Findings From the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. JAMA 1997, 278, 823–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Okafor, M.; Sarpong, D.F.; Ferguson, A.; Satcher, D. Improving Health Outcomes of Children through Effective Parenting: Model and Methods. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 296-311. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110100296
Okafor M, Sarpong DF, Ferguson A, Satcher D. Improving Health Outcomes of Children through Effective Parenting: Model and Methods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(1):296-311. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110100296
Chicago/Turabian StyleOkafor, Martha, Daniel F. Sarpong, Aneeqah Ferguson, and David Satcher. 2014. "Improving Health Outcomes of Children through Effective Parenting: Model and Methods" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 1: 296-311. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110100296