Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour and Risk Factors among In-School Adolescents in Four Southeast Asian Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Sample and Procedure
Country | Gross National Income per Capita(2012) 1 (US$) | Children Aged <5 years Underweight for Age (2012) 2 (%) | Mean Years of Schooling (2010) 1 | Net primary School Enrolment Rate (2005–2011) 2 (%) | Living in Urban Areas (2011) 2 (%) | Access to Improved Drinking Water Sources (2011) 2 (%) | Access to Improved Sanitation (2011) 2 (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | |||||||
1. India | 3285 | 43.5 | 4.4 | 99 | 98 | 31 | 92 | 35 |
2. Indonesia | 4154 | 18.6 | 5.8 | 97 | 93 | 51 | 84 | 59 |
3. Myanmar | 1817 | 22.6 | 3.9 | -- | -- | 33 | 84 | 77 |
4. Thailand | 7722 | 7.0 | 6.6 | 90 | 89 | 34 | 96 | 93 |
2.2. Measures
Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour
Eating Patterns
Body Mass Index (BMI) Measurement
Substance Use Variables
Physical Activity
Leisure Time Sedentary Behavior
Psychological Distress
Protective Factors
2.3. Data Analysis
Country | Survey Year | Overall Response Rate 1 | Age Groups in Years (%) | Mean Age of Final Sample | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | 13 years | 14 years | 15 years | |||
1. India | 2007 | 84 | 2,017 (29.9) | 2,654 (38.4) | 2,080 (31.7) | 14.0 |
2. Indonesia | 2008 | 93 | 1,072 (33.2) | 1,253 (45.2) | 542 (21.6) | 13.9 |
3. Myanmar | 2007 | 95 | 585 (37.1) | 628 (34.3) | 770 (28.6) | 13.9 |
4. Thailand | 2008 | 93 | 841 (37.1) | 871 (36.2) | 511 (26.7) | 13.9 |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Sample Characteristics and Hygiene Behaviour
Country | Total (N) | Sex % 1 | Brushed Teeth <twice a day 1 | Wash Hands before Eating (not always) 1 | Wash Hands after Toilet or Latrine Use (not always) 1 | Wash Hands with Soap (not always) 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | ||||||
1. India | 6,751 | 57.9 (52.6–63.2) | 42.1 (36.8–47.4) | 45.2 (42.6–47.7) | 33.0 (29.4–36.7) | 15.0 (12.4–17.6) | 57.0 (53.1–60.9) |
2. Indonesia | 2,867 | 49.5 (46.8–52.2) | 50.5 (47.8–53.2) | 11.3 (9.2–13.4) | 46.9 (43.5–50.3) | 34.6 (30.9–38.4) | 64.0 (61.4–66.5) |
3. Myanmar | 1,983 | 50.0 (46.5–53.4) | 50.0 (46.5–53.5) | 27.6 (23.9–31.2) | 18.6 (15.7–21.5) | 20.4 (17.2–23.5) | 38.2 (33.6–42.7) |
4. Thailand | 2,223 | 49.2 (44.3–54.0) | 50.8 (46.0–55.7) | 12.8 (10.4–15.1) | 65.9 (58.5–73.3 | 26.7 (24.0–29.5) | 67.0 (63.3–70.7) |
Total | 13,824 | 51.2 (49.1–53.2) | 48.8 (46.8–50.9) | 22.4 (20.9–24.0) | 45.2 (42.6–47.9) | 26.5 (24.4–28.5) | 59.8 (57.7–61.8) |
All | Tooth brushing <2/day | Not always washing hands before meals | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | COR (CI 95%) | AOR (CI 95%) | COR (CI 95%) | AOR (CI 95%) | |
Female | 48.8 (49.1–53.2) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Male | 51.2 (49.1–53.2) | 1.85 (1.66–2.07) *** | 2.03 (1.71–2.41) *** | 1.15 (1.03–1.28) * | 1.04 (0.89–1.20) |
Age | |||||
13 years | 34.2 (26.3–31.2) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
14 | 40.0 (37.4–41.8) | 1.12 (0.99–1.26) | 1.02 (0.89–1.35) | 1.03 (0.91–1.18) | -- |
15 years | 25.8 (23.2–28.4) | 1.21 (1.07–1.36) ** | 1.03 (0.96–1.18) | 1.09 (0.86–1.37) | -- |
Went hungry | 4.4 (3.6–5.2) | 1.16 (0.91–1.47) | -- | 1.12 (0.91–1.38) | -- |
Substance use | |||||
—Current alcohol use | 6.5 (5.4–7.6) | 1.11 (0.82–1.50) | -- | 2.01 (1.54–2.63) *** | 1.80 (1.25–2.20) ** |
—Current smoking | 7.2 (5.9–8.4) | 1.01 (0.77–1.32) | -- | 1.82(1.54–2.63) *** | 1.21 (0.86–1.70) |
—Ever used drugs | 2.4 (1.9–2.9) | 1.56 (1.08–2.44) * | 1.05 (0.77–1.40) | 1.82 (1.15–2.88) * | 1.05 (0.50–2.41) |
Fruits less than once daily | 28.0 (26.2–29.9) | 2.04 (1.77–2.35) *** | 1.74 (1.41–2.13) *** | 1.32 (1.15–1.50) *** | 1.13 (0.95–1.34) |
Vegetables less than once daily | 14.0 (12.2–15.1) | 1.97 (1.73–2.24) *** | 2.11 (1.65–2.70) *** | 1.56 (1.31–1.87) *** | 1.21 (0.95–1.56) |
Physical activity | |||||
—<60 min daily (at 5 or more days a week) | 81.5 (80.2–82.9) | 1.08 (0.95–1.24) | -- | 1.52 (1.33–1.73) *** | 1.26 (1.05–1.52) * |
—Sedentary behaviour | 30.3 (28.0–32.6) | 0.89 (0.79–1.02) | -- | 1.79 (1.53–2.10) *** | 1.75 (1.47–2.09) *** |
Overweight/obese | 8.2 (7.0–9.3) | 1.04 (0.87–1.24) | -- | 1.42 (1.17–1.73) *** | 1.35 (1.06–1.71) * |
Psychological distress | |||||
—Zero | 70.6 (66.5–75.4) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
—One | 20.7 (19.3–22.1) | 1.21 (1.07–1.38) ** | 1.01 (0.82–1.23) | 1.05 (0.90–1.23) | 0.94 (0.78–1.13) |
—Two or more | 8.7 (7.6–9.8) | 1.39 (1.12–1.74) ** | 1.27 (0.95–1.70) | 1.41 (1.12–1.77) ** | 1.02 (0.82–1.27) |
Lack of protective factors | |||||
—Low | 41.1 (39.8–43.7) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
—Medium | 43.0 (41.8–44.1) | 1.52 (1.33–1.72) *** | 1.70 (1.39–2.08) *** | 1.59 (1.41–1.79) *** | 1.51 (1.28–1.78) *** |
—High | 15.9 (14.4–17.4) | 2.13 (1.75–2.61) *** | 2.26 (1.67–3.04) *** | 2.39 (2.05–2.79) *** | 2.39 (1.90–3.01) *** |
3.2. Sub-optimal Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour and Its Relationship with Social and Behavioural Variables
Not always washing hands after toilet | Not always washing hands with soap | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
COR (CI 95%) | AOR (CI 95%) | COR (CI 95%) | AOR (CI 95%) | |
Female | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Male | 1.18 (1.01–1.38) * | 1.05 (0.87–1.27) | 1.16 (1.03–1.31) * | 1.05 (0.89–1.23) |
Age | ||||
13 years | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
14 | 1.02 (0.91–1.16) | 0.98 (0.87–1.11) | ||
15 years | 0.96 (0.80–1.14) | 1.21 (1.07–1.36) ** | 0.98 (0.85–1.13) | -- |
Went hungry | 1.74 (1.37–2.21) *** | 1.63 (1.19–2.24) ** | 1.04 (0.77–1.42) | -- |
Substance use | ||||
—Current alcohol use | 1.38 (1.10–1.73) ** | 1.09 (0.79–1.27) | 1.64 (1.24–2.16) *** | 1.33 (0.93–1.88) |
—Current smoking | 2.25 (1.82–2.78) *** | 1.68 (1.27–2.24) *** | 1.77 (1.46–2.14) *** | 1.72 (1.36–2.19) *** |
—Ever used drugs | (1.43–2.95) *** | 1.05 (0.54–2.14) | 1.31 (0.84–2.06) | -- |
Fruits less than once daily | 1.43 (1.27–1.62) *** | 1.24 (1.07–1.43) ** | 1.65 (1.43–1.89) *** | 1.38 (1.16–1.65) *** |
Vegetables less than once daily | 1.54 (1.30–1.83) *** | 1.20 (0.99–1.46) | 1.59 (1.37–1.83) *** | 1.26 (1.06–1.49) ** |
Physical activity | ||||
—<60 min daily (at 5 or more days a week) | 1.53 (1.27–1.85) *** | 1.27 (0.99–1.61) | 1.39 (1.23–1.57) *** | 1.30 (1.10–1.55) ** |
—Sedentary behaviour | 1.13 (0.99–1.29) | -- | 1.21 (1.06–1.39) ** | 1.11 (0.93–1.32) |
Overweight/obese | 1.00 (0.79–1.27) | -- | 0.97 (0.81–1.17) | -- |
Psychological distress | ||||
—Zero | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
—One | 1.43 (1.22–1.68) *** | 1.29 (1.06–1.56) * | 1.16 (0.95–1.41) | |
—Two or more | 1.63 (1.27–2.09) *** | 1.39 (1.06–1.82) * | 1.05 (0.83–1.32) | -- |
Lack of protective factors | ||||
—Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
—Medium | 1.42 (1.24–1.62) *** | 1.34 (1.16–1.55) *** | 1.58 (1.41–1.76) *** | 1.57 (1.38–1.79) *** |
—High | 2.31 (1.97–2.70) *** | 1.90 (1.57–2.29) *** | 2.07 (1.74–2.46) *** | 2.11 (1.72–2.59) *** |
4. Discussion
5. Study Limitations
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Peltzer, K.; Pengpid, S. Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour and Risk Factors among In-School Adolescents in Four Southeast Asian Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 2780-2792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110302780
Peltzer K, Pengpid S. Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour and Risk Factors among In-School Adolescents in Four Southeast Asian Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(3):2780-2792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110302780
Chicago/Turabian StylePeltzer, Karl, and Supa Pengpid. 2014. "Oral and Hand Hygiene Behaviour and Risk Factors among In-School Adolescents in Four Southeast Asian Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 3: 2780-2792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110302780