Associations Between Excessive Sodium Intake and Smoking and Alcohol Intake Among Korean Men: KNHANES V
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Subjects
2.2. Smoking-Related Factors
2.3. Sodium Intake
2.4. Urinary Creatinine Level
2.5. Confounding Factors
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Distribution of Smoking-Related Factors
All | Current Smoker | Urinary Cotinine Level (μg/mL) | Pack-Years of Smoking | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | N | % w (SE) | GM a (95% CI) | Median (min–max) | |
All | 6340 | 2450 | 44.1 (0.8) | 0.05 (0.04, 0.07) | 13.2 (0–180) |
Age group (years) | |||||
19–34 | 1071 | 507 | 47.9 (1.6) | 0.06 (0.04, 0.08) | 2.4 (0–33) |
35–64 | 3545 | 1528 | 46.6 (1.0) | 0.06 (0.04, 0.07) | 15.8 (0–156) |
≥65 | 1724 | 415 | 25.1 (1.2) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 20.0 (0–180) |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.0003 | <0.0001 | ||
Household income | |||||
Low | 1202 | 439 | 42.7 (2.1) | 0.1 (0.06, 0.16) | 20.0 (0–156) |
Lower middle | 1631 | 659 | 46.8 (1.7) | 0.07 (0.04, 0.10) | 13.5 (0–180) |
Upper middle | 1744 | 681 | 44.9 (1.4) | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 10.5 (0–129) |
High | 1705 | 647 | 41.3 (1.6) | 0.04 (0.03, 0.06) | 10.3 (0–180) |
Unknown | 58 | 58 | 47.8 (9.0) | 0.07 (0.00, 2.96) | 16.4 (0–85.5) |
p-value | 0.01 | 0.03 | <0.0001 | ||
Marital status | |||||
Married | 5109 | 1868 | 42.1 (0.9) | 0.04 (0.03, 0.06) | 15.1 (0–180) |
Separated, widowed, or divorced | 314 | 147 | 54.2 (3.6) | 0.21 (0.08, 0.53) | 23.9 (0–180) |
Not married | 912 | 432 | 47.8 (1.8) | 0.07 (0.05, 0.10) | 2.0 (0–74) |
Unknown | 5 | 3 | 58.3 (25.6) | - | 40.0 (12.9–86) |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.001 | <0.0001 | ||
Frequency of alcohol intake (/month) | |||||
None | 1098 | 244 | 24.1 (1.7) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 15.7 (0–147) |
0–1 | 1215 | 405 | 37.8 (1.8) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.05) | 8.3 (0–180) |
2–4 | 1666 | 675 | 45.1 (1.5) | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 8.9 (0–150) |
≥5 | 2333 | 1116 | 54.2 (1.3) | 0.11 (0.08, 0.15) | 18.5 (0–180) |
Unknown | 28 | 10 | 46.6 (8.8) | 0.02 (0.00, 0.19) | 7.5 (0–87.5) |
p-value | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | ||
Body mass index (kg/m2) | |||||
<18.5 | 192 | 92 | 51.4 (4.8) | 0.04 (0.01, 0.32) | 17.0 (0–156) |
18.5 to <25 | 3940 | 1538 | 43.8 (1.0) | 0.05 (0.04, 0.07) | 12.8 (0–180) |
≥25 | 2182 | 807 | 44.1 (1.3) | 0.06 (0.04, 0.08) | 14.0 (0–180) |
Unknown | 26 | 13 | 44.7 (11.5) | 0.01 (0, 6203.2) | 10.5 (0–45) |
p-value | 0.14 | 0.93 | 0.006 | ||
Frequency of eating out | |||||
<1/month | 646 | 214 | 35.4 (2.5) | 0.04 (0.01, 0.11) | 24.8 (0–156) |
1–8/month | 2131 | 712 | 39.4 (1.5) | 0.06 (0.04, 0.08) | 17.5 (0–180) |
3–6/week | 1615 | 633 | 45.4 (1.5) | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 10.0 (0–180) |
≥1/day | 1946 | 890 | 48.5 (1.4) | 0.06 (0.04, 0.08) | 10.0 (0–140) |
Unknown | 2 | 1 | 42.6 (35.0) | - | 8.5 (0.5–16.5) |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.70 | <0.0001 | ||
Correlation coefficient with urinary cotinine level (p-value) | 0.63 (<0.001) | - | 0.27 (<0.001) |
3.2. Distribution of Sodium Intake
All | Sodium Intake (mg/day) | |
---|---|---|
N | GM a (95% CI) | |
All | 6340 | 5133.2 (5034.5, 5233.9) |
Age group (years) | ||
19–34 | 1071 | 5170.7 (4967.5, 5382.2) |
35–64 | 3545 | 5432.3 (5310.6, 5556.8) |
≥65 | 1724 | 3955.6 (3802.2, 4115.1) |
p-value | <0.0001 | |
Household income | ||
Low | 1202 | 4253.6 (4047.6, 4470.1) |
Lower middle | 1631 | 5050.2 (4868.3, 5238.8) |
Upper middle | 1744 | 5409.6 (5242.9, 5581.7) |
High | 1705 | 5442.4 (5232.8, 5660.4) |
Unknown | 58 | 4707.9 (4111.7, 5390.4) |
p-value | <0.0001 | |
Marital status | ||
Married | 5109 | 5239.5 (5132.6, 5348.6) |
Separated, widowed, or divorced | 314 | 4743.3 (4346.6, 5176.3) |
Not married | 912 | 4920.9 (4712.2, 5138.9) |
Unknown | 5 | - |
p-value | 0.01 | |
Frequency of alcohol intake (/month) | ||
None | 1098 | 4547.9 (4324.1, 4783.4) |
0–1 | 1215 | 4900.7 (4699.0, 5111.1) |
2–4 | 1666 | 5195.0 (5013.7, 5382.7) |
≥5 | 2333 | 5450.9 (5297.4, 5609.0) |
Unknown | 28 | 5797.3 (4817.5, 6976.4) |
p-value | <0.0001 | |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | ||
<18.5 | 192 | 4540.5 (4119.9, 5004.0) |
18.5 to <25 | 3940 | 4952.6 (4835.7, 5072.2) |
≥25 | 2182 | 5510.2 (5342.6, 5683.1) |
Unknown | 26 | 4834.9 (3718.6, 6286.3) |
p-value | <0.0001 | |
Frequency of eating out | ||
<1/month | 646 | 3906.3 (3622.5, 4212.3) |
1–8 month | 2131 | 4636.1 (4474.7, 4803.2) |
3–6/week | 1615 | 5397.2 (5213.6, 5587.1) |
≥1/day | 1946 | 5637.5 (5463.5, 5817.1) |
Unknown | 2 | 6665.4 (29.7, 1,498,256.3) |
p-value | <0.0001 |
3.3. Odds of Excessive Sodium Intake According to Smoking-Related Factors
Smoking-Related Factors | Excessive Sodium Intake (>7392.52 mg/day) a | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Model | Adjusted Model b | |||
N | Cases | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
Smoking status | ||||
Non-smoker | 1176 | 264 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
Ex-smoker | 2714 | 666 | 1.21 (1.00, 1.47) | 1.16 (0.94, 1.43) |
Current smoker | 2450 | 655 | 1.33 (1.10, 1.61) | 1.17 (0.95, 1.43) |
p-trend | 0.01 | 0.22 | ||
Urinary cotinine level (μg/mL) | ||||
Q1 (0.009, 3.07) | 387 | 112 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) c |
Q2 (3.07, 14.5) | 387 | 104 | 0.82 (0.56, 1.21) | 0.77 (0.52, 1.14) |
Q3 (14.5, 1133.38) | 388 | 110 | 0.99 (0.70, 1.41) | 0.96 (0.66, 1.40) |
Q4 (1133.38, 5800.17) | 387 | 137 | 1.31 (0.93, 1.84) | 1.29 (0.89, 1.86) |
p-trend | 0.05 | 0.08 | ||
Urinary cotinine level corrected by creatinine level (μg/g Cr) | ||||
Q1 (0.00002, 0.02) | 387 | 106 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
Q2 (0.02, 0.11) | 387 | 108 | 0.85 (0.57, 1.27) | 0.83 (0.55, 1.26) |
Q3 (0.11, 6.63) | 388 | 112 | 1.10 (0.76, 1.57) | 1.07 (0.73, 1.56) |
Q4 (6.63, 63.78) | 387 | 137 | 1.34 (0.94, 1.90) | 1.26 (0.87, 1.83) |
p-trend | 0.04 | 0.11 | ||
Pack-years of smoking | ||||
Q1 (0, 1.3) | 1531 | 350 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
Q2 (1.3, 13) | 1517 | 400 | 1.28 (1.05, 1.56) | 1.15 (0.94, 1.41) |
Q3 (13, 28) | 1539 | 423 | 1.29 (1.06, 1.58) | 1.10 (0.88, 1.38) |
Q4 (28, 180) | 1511 | 342 | 1.09 (0.89, 1.32) | 1.08 (0.86, 1.36) |
p-trend | 0.27 | 0.53 |
3.4. Excessive Sodium Intake According to Alcohol Intake
Excessive Sodium Intake (>7392.52 mg/day a) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | Cases | Crude model | Adjusted model b | |
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |||
Frequency of alcohol intake (/month) | ||||
None | 1098 | 190 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
0–1 | 1215 | 287 | 1.43 (1.08, 1.90) | 1.25 (0.93, 1.67) |
2–4 | 1666 | 425 | 1.43 (1.11, 1.85) | 1.17 (0.90, 1.52) |
≥5 | 2333 | 675 | 1.85 (1.43, 2.38) | 1.49 (1.14, 1.95) |
p-trend | <0.0001 | 0.003 |
3.5. Excessive Sodium Intake According to Combined Smoking and Alcohol Intake
Risk Group of Excessive Sodium Intake (>7392.52 mg/day) a | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Case | Crude Model | Adjusted Model b | ||
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
Smoking experience c | Current alcohol intake | ||||
No | No | 279 | 46 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
No | Yes | 893 | 217 | 1.39 (0.88, 2.18) | 1.27 (0.80, 2.02) |
Yes | No | 819 | 144 | 1.08 (0.67, 1.72) | 1.15 (0.71, 1.86) |
Yes | Yes | 4321 | 1170 | 1.76 (1.16, 2.67) | 1.54 (1.00, 2.37) |
p-interaction | 0.0005 | 0.02 | |||
Smoking experience c | Frequency of alcohol intake (≥5/month) | ||||
No | No | 912 | 190 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
No | Yes | 260 | 73 | 1.45 (0.98, 2.15) | 1.40 (0.94, 2.08) |
Yes | No | 3067 | 712 | 1.23 (0.99, 1.52) | 1.22 (0.97, 1.53) |
Yes | Yes | 2073 | 602 | 1.64 (1.33, 2.02) | 1.55 (1.23, 1.94) |
p-interaction | 0.11 | 0.22 | |||
Current smoker | Current alcohol intake | ||||
No | No | 854 | 145 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
No | Yes | 3018 | 777 | 1.53 (1.16, 2.02) | 1.30 (0.98, 1.74) |
Yes | No | 244 | 45 | 1.07 (0.66, 1.74) | 1.00 (0.61, 1.63) |
Yes | Yes | 2196 | 610 | 1.75 (1.31, 2.33) | 1.44 (1.07, 1.95) |
p-interaction | 0.48 | 0.50 | |||
Current smoker | Frequency of alcohol intake (≥5/month) | ||||
No | No | 2655 | 567 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
No | Yes | 1217 | 355 | 1.54 (1.26, 1.87) | 1.46 (1.20, 1.79) |
Yes | No | 1324 | 335 | 1.26 (1.04, 1.53) | 1.19 (0.98, 1.46) |
Yes | Yes | 1116 | 320 | 1.5 (1.23, 1.83) | 1.37 (1.11, 1.68) |
p-interaction | 0.02 | 0.05 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Choi, K.-H.; Park, M.-S.; Kim, J.A.; Lim, J.-A. Associations Between Excessive Sodium Intake and Smoking and Alcohol Intake Among Korean Men: KNHANES V. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 15540-15549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215001
Choi K-H, Park M-S, Kim JA, Lim J-A. Associations Between Excessive Sodium Intake and Smoking and Alcohol Intake Among Korean Men: KNHANES V. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(12):15540-15549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215001
Chicago/Turabian StyleChoi, Kyung-Hwa, Myung-Sook Park, Jung Ae Kim, and Ji-Ae Lim. 2015. "Associations Between Excessive Sodium Intake and Smoking and Alcohol Intake Among Korean Men: KNHANES V" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 12: 15540-15549. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121215001