Cross-Sectional Associations of Depressive Symptom Severity and Functioning with Health Service Use by Older People in Low-and-Middle Income Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Sociodemographics
2.2.2. Depression
2.2.3. Functioning
2.2.4. HSU
2.3. Selection of Potential Confounding Variables
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics of Participants
3.2. Previous HSU
3.3. Associations of Depressive Symptom Severity and Functioning with HSU
3.4. Associations of Specific Functioning Difficulties with “Any Community HSU”
Variable | n (%) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All | China (Urban) | China (Rural) | Cuba | Dominic.Republic | India (Urban) | India (Rural) | Mexico (Urban) | Mexico (Rural) | Nigeria | Peru (Urban) | Peru (Rural) | Puerto Rico | Vene-zuela | |
n | 4590 | 44 | 15 | 682 | 757 | 390 | 422 | 312 | 259 | 270 | 390 | 144 | 331 | 574 |
Age (MV) | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
65–69 | 1347 | 16 | 3 | 182 | 189 | 146 | 140 | 64 | 81 | 82 | 91 | 42 | 89 | 222 |
(29.3) | (36.3) | (20.0) | (26.6) | (24.9) | (37.4) | (33.1) | (20.5) | (31.2) | (30.3) | (23.3) | (29.1) | (26.8) | (38.6) | |
70–74 | 1224 | 11 | 8 | 151 | 173 | 130 | 152 | 106 | 65 | 76 | 99 | 40 | 69 | 144 |
(26.6) | (25.0) | (53.3) | (22.1) | (22.8) | (33.3) | (36.0) | (33.9) | (25.1) | (28.1) | (25.3) | (27.7) | (20.8) | (25 | |
75–79 | 941 | 7 | 3 | 164 | 161 | 61 | 75 | 69 | 57 | 35 | 99 | 29 | 81 | 100 |
(20.5) | (15.9) | (20.0) | (24.0) | (21.2) | (15.6) | (17.7) | (22.1) | (22) | (12.9) | (25.3) | (20.1) | (24.4) | (17.4) | |
80–84 | 576 | 3 | 1 | 105 | 115 | 28 | 38 | 43 | 32 | 39 | 55 | 21 | 47 | 49 |
(12.5) | (6.8) | (6.6) | (15.4) | (15.1) | (7.1) | (9.0) | (13.7) | (12.3) | (14.4) | (14.1) | (14.5) | (14.2) | (8.5) | |
85–89 | 345 | 7 | 0 | 55 | 76 | 15 | 14 | 24 | 18 | 22 | 34 | 8 | 32 | 40 |
(7.5) | (15.9) | (8.0) | (10.0) | (3.8) | (3.3) | (7.6) | (6.9) | (8.1) | (8.7) | (5.5) | (9.6) | (6.9) | ||
90+ | 152 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 43 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 16 | 12 | 4 | 13 | 18 |
(3.3) | (3.5) | (5.6) | (2.0) | (0.7) | (1.6) | (2.3) | (5.9) | (3.0) | (2.7) | (3.9) | (3.1) | |||
Gender (MV) | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Female | 3282 | 27 | 6 | 535 | 573 | 261 | 232 | 235 | 196 | 165 | 282 | 92 | 262 | 416 |
(71.5) | (61.3) | (40.0) | (78.4) | (75.6) | (66.9) | (54.9) | (75.3) | (75.6) | (61.1) | (72.3) | (63.8) | (79.1) | (72.4) | |
Education (MV) | 20 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
No education | 1217 | 10 | 6 | 28 | 186 | 220 | 294 | 91 | 93 | 178 | 12 | 33 | 17 | 49 |
(26.5) | (22.7) | (40.0) | (4.1) | (24.5) | (56.4) | (69.6) | (29.1) | (35.9) | (65.9) | (3.0) | (22.9) | (5.1) | (8.5) | |
Some | 1351 | 10 | 5 | 182 | 398 | 83 | 75 | 130 | 133 | 32 | 42 | 40 | 67 | 154 |
(29.5) | (22.7) | (33.3) | (26.6) | (52.5) | (21.2) | (17.7) | (41.6) | (51.3) | (11.8) | (10.7) | (27.7) | (20.2) | (26.8) | |
Completed primary | 1155 | 14 | 4 | 247 | 108 | 60 | 40 | 59 | 25 | 32 | 157 | 56 | 82 | 271 |
(25.2) | (31.8) | (66.6) | (36.2) | (14.2) | (15.3) | (9.4) | (18.9) | (9.6) | (11.8) | (40.2) | (38.8) | (24.7) | (47.2) | |
Completed secondary | 540 | 6 | 0 | 136 | 43 | 21 | 12 | 20 | 5 | 6 | 122 | 7 | 110 | 52 |
(11.8) | (13.6) | (19.9) | (5.6) | (5.3) | (2.8) | (6.4) | (1.9) | (2.2) | (31.2) | (4.8) | (33.2) | (9.0) | ||
Completed tertiary | 270 | 4 | 0 | 88 | 14 | 6 | 1 | 12 | 3 | 4 | 55 | 5 | 53 | 25 |
(5.8) | (9.0) | (12.9) | (1.8) | (1.5) | (0.2) | (3.8) | (1.1) | (1.4) | (14.1) | (3.4) | (16) | (4.3) | ||
Unknown | 37 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 23 |
(0.8) | (0.1) | (1.0) | (0.5) | (2.0) | (4.0) | |||||||||
Marital Status (MV) | 47 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 21 |
Never married | 265 | 0 | 0 | 69 | 37 | 8 | 2 | 16 | 10 | 9 | 42 | 10 | 15 | 47 |
(10.1) | (4.8) | (2.0) | (0.4) | (5.1) | (3.86) | (3.30) | (10.7) | (6.9) | (4.5) | (8.1) | ||||
(5.7) | ||||||||||||||
Married/Cohabiting | 1882 | 30 | 4 | 232 | 182 | 153 | 199 | 140 | 121 | 162 | 196 | 85 | 158 | 220 |
(41.0) | (68.1) | (26.6) | (34.0) | (24.0) | (39.2) | (47.1) | (44.8) | (46.72) | (60.0) | (50.2) | (59.0) | (47.7) | (38.3) | |
Widowed | 1847 | 14 | 11 | 257 | 348 | 206 | 212 | 127 | 110 | 81 | 128 | 47 | 116 | 190 |
(40.2) | (31.8) | (73.3) | (37.6) | (45.9) | (52.8) | (50.2) | (40.7) | (42.47) | (30.0) | (32.8) | (32.6) | (35.0) | (33.1) | |
Divorced/Separated | 549 | 0 | 0 | 123 | 186 | 23 | 9 | 29 | 18 | 0 | 23 | 2 | 40 | 96 |
(11.9) | (18.0) | (24.5) | (5.9) | (2.1) | (9.2) | (6.9) | (5.9) | (1.3) | (12) | (16.7) | ||||
Assets 1 (MV) | 219 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 214 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
0 | 72 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 43 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 14 |
(1.6) | (0.3) | (0.4) | (0.8) | (10.2) | (0.4) | (1.5) | (1.4) | (2.4) | ||||||
1–4 | 1274 | 3 | 5 | 72 | 281 | 265 | 351 | 36 | 155 | 43 | 9 | 50 | 4 | 560 |
(27.8) | (6.8) | (33.3) | (10.5) | (37.1) | (67.9) | (83.2) | (11.5) | (59.8) | (15.9) | (2.3) | (34.7) | (1.2) | (97.6) | |
5+ | 3025 | 41 | 41 | 607 | 471 | 120 | 28 | 276 | 103 | 9 | 381 | 92 | 327 | 0 |
(65.9) | (93.2) | (93.2) | (89.0) | (62.2) | (30.8) | (6.6) | (88.5) | (39.8) | (3.3) | (97.7) | (63.9) | (98.8) | ||
Pension (MV) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Yes | 2098 | 38 | 3 | 541 | 208 | 23 | 145 | 228 | 78 | 1 | 234 | 100 | 190 | 309 |
(45.7) | (86.4) | (20) | (79.3) | (27.5) | (5.9) | (34.4) | (73.1) | (30.1) | (0.4) | (60) | (69.4) | (57.4) | (53.8) | |
Private Insurance (MV) | 63 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 29 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 25 |
None | 3204 | 44 | 9 | 680 | 642 | 387 | 422 | 134 | 184 | 241 | 88 | 33 | 19 | 321 |
(69.8) | (100) | (60.0) | (99.7) | (84.8) | (99.2) | (100) | (42.9) | (71.0) | (89.2) | (22.5) | (22.9) | (5.7) | (55.9) | |
Physical Comorbidities (MV) | 27 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 19 |
1–2 | 1954 | 18 | 8 | 382 | 342 | 147 | 204 | 135 | 113 | 139 | 166 | 74 | 37 | 189 |
(42.6) | (40.9) | (53.3) | (56.0) | (45.2) | (37.7) | (48.3) | (43.3) | (43.6) | (42.0) | (42.6) | (51.4) | (13.7) | (32.9) | |
3+ | 1287 | 19 | 4 | 122 | 310 | 28 | 101 | 92 | 85 | 131 | 117 | 23 | 7 | 248 |
(28.0) | (43.2) | (26.7) | (17.9) | (40.9) | (7.2) | (23.9) | (29.5) | (32.8) | (39.6) | (30.0) | (15.9) | (2.6) | (43.2) | |
Dementia (MV) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Any diagnosis | 615 | 10 | 10 | 98 | 121 | 43 | 52 | 45 | 32 | 42 | 32 | 19 | 42 | 69 |
(13.4) | (22.7) | (66.7) | (14.4) | (16.0) | (11.0) | (12.3) | (14.4) | (12.4) | (15.6) | (8.2) | (13.2) | (12.7) | (12.0) | |
Depression (MV) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
ICD-10 depressive episode | 931 | 3 | 6 | 142 | 274 | 37 | 124 | 46 | 42 | 5 | 84 | 16 | 46 | 106 |
(20.3) | (6.8) | (40.0) | (20.8) | (36.2) | (9.5) | (29.4) | (14.7) | (16.2) | (1.9) | (21.5) | (11.1) | (13.9) | (18.5) |
Country | n | Any Community Health Service 1 (MV = 0) | Hospital Admission (MV = 27) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | Standardised 2 | Crude | Standardised 2 | ||||||
% | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | ||
China (urban) | 44 | 59.0 | (44.9–73.3) | 37.1 | (34.2–39.9) | 13.6 | (3.4–23.8) | 6.7 | (2.2–11.2) |
China (rural) | 15 | 6.6 | (0–19.3) | 2.1 | (0–5.6) | 0 | - | 0 | - |
Cuba | 682 | 53.6 | (49.9–57.5) | 51.4 | (46.0–56.9) | 2.8 | (1.5–4.0) | 2.4 | (1.2–3.7) |
Dominican Republic | 757 | 52.3 | (48.7–55.9) | 52.8 | (49.0–56.6) | 4.3 | (2.9–5.8) | 4.4 | (2.8–6.1) |
India (urban) | 390 | 55.9 | (50.8–60.9) | 50.5 | (45.7–55.3) | 1.2 | (0.2–2.3) | 0.9 | (0–1.8) |
India (rural) | 422 | 91.0 | (88.3–93.7) | 60.3 | (57.1–63.6) | 1.9 | (0.6–3.1) | 0.7 | (0.2–1.2) |
Mexico (urban) | 237 | 79.4 | (74.9–83.9) | 73.7 | (69.9–77.6) | 4.1 | (1.9–6.3) | 3.4 | (1.5–5.3) |
Mexico (rural) | 259 | 68.3 | (62.6–74.0) | 61.7 | (57.6–65.7) | 2.7 | (0.7–4.6) | 1.4 | (0.5–2.3) |
Nigeria | 270 | 24.4 | (19.4–29.4) | 23.6 | (19.2–27.9) | 4.1 | (1.7–6.5) | 2.7 | (1.4–4.1) |
Peru (urban) | 223 | 60.0 | (54.9–65.0) | 49.1 | (43.9–4.4) | 3.8 | (1.8–5.8) | 7.4 | (6.4–8.4) |
Peru (rural) | 144 | 40.2 | (32.2–48.4) | 37.2 | (32.1–42.2) | 2.1 | (−2.5–4.4) | 1.8 | (0.01–3.5) |
Puerto Rico | 331 | 83.9 | (80.0–87.9) | 82.1 | (77.9–86.2) | 6.1 | (3.5–8.6) | 4.5 | (2.3–6.8) |
Venezuela | 574 | 68.8 | (65.0–72.6) | 70.4 | (65.6–75.0) | 6.4 | (4.6–8.7) | 5.4 | (3.6–7.2) |
Pooled estimate | 4590 | 57.8 | (46.6–69.0) | 50.2 | (36.6–63.7) | 3.6 | (2.5–4.6) | 3.4 | (1.9–4.7) |
Country | n | Prevalence Ratios (95% CI) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Any Community Health Service 1 (MV = 0) | Hospital Admission(MV = 27) | ||||||||
Depression Severity | Functioning 2 | Depression Severity | Functioning 2 | ||||||
Crude | Adjusted 3 | Crude | Adjusted 3 | Crude | Adjusted 3 | Crude | Adjusted 3 | ||
China (urban) | 44 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 1.35 | 1.30 | 1.52 | 1.21 |
(0.77–1.09) | (0.78–1.08) | (0.88–1.07) | (0.88–1.11) | (0.94–1.95) | (0.81–2.11) | (0.92–1.67) | (0.82–1.78) | ||
Cuba | 682 | 1.03 | 1.04 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.89 | 0.83 |
(0.99–1.07) | (1.00–1.08) | (0.93–0.99) | (0.93–1.01) | (0.73–1.19) | (0.73–1.19) | (0.75–1.07) | (0.68–1.02) | ||
Dominican Republic | 757 | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.21 | 1.18 | 1.27 | 1.28 |
(0.98–1.06) | (0.98–1.06) | (1.00–1.05) | (0.98–1.04) | (1.04–1.40) | (1.01–1.37) | (1.14–1.42) | (1.11–1.47) | ||
India (urban) | 390 | 1.03 | 1.05 | 1.08 | 1.03 | 1.54 | 1.87 | 1.39 | 1.12 |
(0.98–1.09) | (1.00–1.10) | (1.03–1.11) | (0.98–1.07) | (1.29–1.84) | (1.54–2.27) | (1.06–1.81) | (0.84–1.48) | ||
India (rural) | 422 | 1.01 | 1.02 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 1.08 | 1.01 | 1.19 | 1.12 |
(0.99–1.03) | (1.00–1.04) | (0.97–1.01) | (0.97–1.01) | (0.82–1.43) | (0.77–1.33) | (0.81–1.76) | (0.76–1.63) | ||
Mexico (urban) | 237 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 1.22 | 1.26 |
(0.98–1.04) | (0.98–1.04) | (0.97–1.02) | (0.97–1.03) | (0.71–1.16) | (0.71–1.22) | (0.99–1.50) | (1.04–1.53) | ||
Mexico (rural) | 259 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.02 | 1.28 | 1.36 | 1.29 | 1.32 |
(0.94–1.05) | (0.94–1.05) | (0.97–1.04) | (0.99–1.05) | (0.95–1.74) | (0.95–1.95) | (1.09–1.52) | (1.09–1.61) | ||
Nigeria | 270 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 1.07 | 1.11 | 0.73 | 0.76 | 0.96 | 0.92 |
(0.87–1.05) | (0.87–1.04) | (0.98–1.17) | (1.02–1.21) | (0.57–0.94) | (0.58–0.98) | (0.77–1.17) | (0.73–1.17) | ||
Peru (urban) | 223 | 1.06 | 1.06 | 1.05 | 1.05 | 1.42 | 1.44 | 1.27 | 1.39 |
(1.01–1.10) | (1.01–1.10) | (1.01–1.09) | (1.02–1.09) | (1.11–1.82) | (1.06–1.94) | (1.09–1.49) | (1.18–1.64) | ||
Peru (rural) | 144 | 1.19 | 1.19 | 1.12 | 1.05 | 0.89 | 0.82 | 0.75 | 0.73 |
(1.03–1.36) | (1.04–1.36) | (1.03–1.23) | (0.95–1.14) | (0.45–1.76) | (0.43–1.52) | (0.47–1.20) | (0.42–1.28) | ||
Puerto Rico | 331 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 0.98 | 1.30 | 1.24 |
(1.00–1.05) | (1.00–1.05) | (0.99–1.04) | (0.98–1.04) | (0.78–1.31) | (0.75–1.27) | (1.12–1.52) | (1.02–1.51) | ||
Venezuela | 574 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.03 | 1.03 | 1.11 | 1.08 | 1.17 | 1.16 |
(0.97–1.05) | (0.98–1.04) | (1.00–1.06) | (0.99–1.05) | (0.93–1.33) | (0.91–1.30) | (1.03–1.34) | (1.00–1.35) | ||
Meta-effect | 4590 | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.02 | 1.01 | 1.11 | 1.11 | 1.18 | 1.14 |
(1.01–1.03) | (1.01–1.03) | (1.00–1.04) | (1.00–1.03) | (0.96–1.25) | (0.95–1.26) | (1.07–1.29) | (1.02–1.26) | ||
I2 | 14.0% | 20.8% | 71.2% | 44.7% | 70.2% | 70.7% | 64.9% | 64.4% |
No. | Item | Pooled (Meta-Analysed) Prevalence Ratios (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | I2 (%) | Adjusted2 | I2 (%) | ||||
PR | (95% CI) | PR | (95% CI) | ||||
1 | Difficulty with standing | 1.02 | (0.99–1.04) | 0 | 1.01 | (0.99–1.03) | 0 |
2 | Difficulty with taking care of household responsibilities | 0.99 | (0.96–1.01) | 0 | 0.98 | (0.96–1.01) | 0 |
3 | Difficulty with learning a new task | 0.99 | (0.96–1.01) | 0 | 0.99 | (0.97–1.02) | 0 |
4 | Difficulty with joining in community activities | 0.99 | (0.95–1.04) | 60.2 | 1.00 | (0.96–1.04) | 55.2 |
5 | Emotionally affected by health problems | 1.06 | (1.03–1.09) | 31.7 | 1.04 | (1.01–1.07) | 22.4 |
6 | Difficulty with concentrating on doing something for ten minutes | 1.00 | (0.98–1.03) | 7.3 | 1.01 | (0.98–1.03) | 0 |
7 | Difficulty with walking a long distance | 1.01 | (0.97–1.04) | 60.4 | 1.00 | (0.97–1.04) | 51.5 |
8 | Difficulty with washing whole body | 0.93 | (0.89–0.98) | 28.9 | 0.93 | (0.88–0.98) | 37.6 |
9 | Difficulty with getting dressed | 1.01 | (0.97–1.05) | 1.7 | 1.01 | (0.97–1.05) | 0 |
10 | Difficulty with unknown people | 0.93 | (0.85–1.01) | 73.3 | 0.93 | (0.86–1.01) | 71.0 |
11 | Difficulty with maintaining a friendship | 1.02 | (0.96–1.07) | 54.4 | 1.01 | (0.95–1.06) | 49.2 |
12 | Difficulty with day-to-day work/school | 1.03 | (0.99–1.06) | 25.7 | 1.03 | (0.99–1.06) | 34.7 |
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1. Summary of Findings
4.2. Limitations and Strengths
4.3. Comparison of Findings with Previous Research
4.4. Implications of Findings for Practice
4.5. Future Research
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Twomey, C.D.; Prince, M.; Cieza, A.; Baldwin, D.S.; Prina, A.M. Cross-Sectional Associations of Depressive Symptom Severity and Functioning with Health Service Use by Older People in Low-and-Middle Income Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 3774-3792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403774
Twomey CD, Prince M, Cieza A, Baldwin DS, Prina AM. Cross-Sectional Associations of Depressive Symptom Severity and Functioning with Health Service Use by Older People in Low-and-Middle Income Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(4):3774-3792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403774
Chicago/Turabian StyleTwomey, Conal D., Martin Prince, Alarcos Cieza, David S. Baldwin, and A. Matthew Prina. 2015. "Cross-Sectional Associations of Depressive Symptom Severity and Functioning with Health Service Use by Older People in Low-and-Middle Income Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 4: 3774-3792. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403774