Water-Related Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Subsequently on Public Health: A Review for Generalists with Particular Reference to Pakistan
Abstract
:1. Introduction, Rationale, and Aim
2. Methodology
3. Flooding Impacts and Environmental Pollution
4. Water Quality and Public Health
5. Overview of Agricultural Water Pollution Impacting on Human Health
6. Water Pollution Control and Detection Techniques
7. Water Pollution, Climate Change, and Population Increase
8. Pollution and Public Health
9. The Pakistani Scenario with Reference to Similar Countries
10. Approaches to Diminish Water-Related Impacts
- Reducing water scarcity and pollution by changing lifestyles of individuals through education and by applying water conservation strategies, rain water harvesting, integrated sustainable water management, as the global water requirement is expected to increase by 55% in 2050. (In Pakistan, the annual water availability was 5260 m3/capita in 1951. Due to increasing urbanization and anthropogenic activities, it is expected to be <800 m3/capita in 2030. In comparison, the estimated figure is 1066 m3/capita in 2015.).
- Improving laws linked to the introduction of missing water valuation, surface water quality impacts due to climate change, groundwater challenges, and pollution control through awareness raising, and implementation of policies regarding water storage, water conservation, integrated water resources management, capacity building, and awareness raising that should be encouraged at various levels by introducing fines to reduce water scarcity and pollution problems should be encouraged [94,95].
- Developing new and improved irrigation techniques and strategies (e.g., drip irrigation, site specific irrigation, micro-irrigation and sprinkling), crop rotation, introduction of new crop varieties, alternate crop selection [96], as well as applying innovative ideas for risk management, biodiversity enhancement, land and grazing management, water conservation, adaptation, and rehabilitation along with pollution control. Adaptation of strategies like crop management practices along soil fertility and water management are practiced due to a reduced availability of water and associated socio-economic effects [97]. Other strategies related to water management in agriculture include tunnel farming, alternate or renewable energy sources, especially pasteurized irrigation systems, gated piped irrigation, and laser land leveling [98].
- Provision of more funds for research in biotechnology supporting the introduction of specific heat resistant, flood (or drought) tolerant, water efficient, and high yield crop varieties; adaptation of better strategies like water channels to conserve water by minimizing water evaporation and transpiration, water reuse strategies after consuming or using water, dam construction to enable water storage; minimizing the effects of water-related impacts of climate change on agriculture and health; and ensuring both water and food security [94]. Provision of funds to establish climate change research centers in agricultural departments to support highly efficient technologies to save labor and to increase yields along with optimized pollution control in the agriculture sector under changing climate scenarios is encouraged [95].
- Involvement of national bodies and key local stakeholders, and securing their active engagement and contributions in adaptation and rehabilitation during and after disasters such as severe floods, earthquakes, heat waves, and storms. Educating farmers may be a considerable challenge when developing strategies to improve crop varieties and better breeds, which are tolerant to adverse climatic conditions like change in temperature, floods, and shift in rainfall patterns—as social barriers may limit the use of feasible measures by farmers [96,99].
- Increasing transparent access to high quality information about water-related disasters and resulting impacts of climate change by national meteorology departments and disaster management control authorities along with provision of data for research-related projects to improve existing scenarios.
- Increasing access to clean water sources subject to water quality assessments at specific periods, especially in flood-prone areas. This should be the top priority to avoid severe health challenges in flood affected areas.
- Supporting the health system by improving surveillance and monitoring as well as proper disposal of sewage to avoid agricultural pollution, soil erosion, and sedimentation. Minimizing the impact and use of agriculture chemicals—like fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and leaching of other chemicals like toxic metals—on the enrichment of nutrients in ground water and its subsequent impacts on water quality and food security [100].
- Improving health care facilities and availability of medicines and early responses to disasters to reduce casualties.
11. Recommendations for Further Work
- To use this review as the basis for the development of a conceptual framework by which to consider the status of water-related impacts of climate change on agriculture and subsequently on public health in countries such as Pakistan.
- To develop efficient and effective community-related projects to minimize the water-related impacts of climate change on agriculture and public health;
- To build capacity and strengthen surveillance against waterborne disease outbreaks;
- To enhance capacity and develop mechanisms for the diagnoses and control of water-related diseases;
- To develop adaptation and mitigation strategies to improve the response to climate change-induced effects on health and agriculture;
- To increase awareness among the general public through education, radio, TV programs, and print media;
- To involve the community in the reduction of water and agriculture pollution, and to subsequently minimize the water-related infections originating due to climate change;
- To develop an efficient drinking water quality monitoring scheme in order to mitigate water-related impacts of climate change and ensure a constant delivery of safe water;
- To create assessment plans for the evaluation of community-related projects benefiting the public; and
- To mobilize health professionals to protect the health and wellbeing of future generations via seminars, workshops, and training sessions for locals.
12. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Deaths | House Damages | Population Affected |
---|---|---|---|
2010 | 490 | 1,602,800 | 175,000,000 |
2011 | 69,890 | 15,977,500 | 9,345,000 |
2012 | 570 | 636,400 | 4,849,800 |
2013 | 330 | 46,200 | 1,489,100 |
2014 | 370 | 107,100 | 2,412,000 |
2015 | 150 | 4800 | 1,314,500 |
Pathogen Types and Typical Organisms | Typical Major Common Diseases | Surveillance | Interventions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Waterborne pathogens (examples) | ||||
Salmonella spp.; Escherichia coli; Vibrio cholera; Shigella spp.; Streptococci; Yersinia spp. | Typhoid; abdominal cramps; Dysentery; Cholera; sore throat; Yersiniosis | Microbiological water quality; monitoring, especially during and after a monsoon | Track diseases; monitor water quality and health; diagnose and investigate waterborne and other infections outbreaks; apply health interventions | [26,27] |
Water-based pathogens (examples) | ||||
Poliovirus; Enteroviruses; Rotavirus; Hepatitis A and E viruses; Helicobacter pylori | Polio; diarrhoea; stomach ulcers; infections; respiratory illnesses | Microbiological water quality monitoring during and after a monsoon | Track diseases; monitor health; diagnose and investigate waterborne outbreaks; apply health interventions | [26,27] |
Vector-borne pathogens (examples) | ||||
Sand flies; dengue virus (mosquitoes); Plasmodium (mosquitoes); Flavivirus; Tsetse flies | Leishmaniasis; dengue fever; fever with shivering; Japanese encephalitis; West Nile virus; Yellow fever; Trypanosomiasis | Monitoring of vectors and their habitats; source identification and enhanced investigations | Diagnose and investigate vector-borne and other related outbreaks; apply the health interventions available | [26,28] |
Health Conditions of Concern | Polluted Air | Excreta and Household Wastewater | Polluted Water or Deficiencies in Water Management | Polluted Food | Unsuitable Housing | Global Change of Environment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acute respiratory infection | X | X | X | |||
Other infections | X | X | X | |||
Diarrheal diseases | X | X | X | X | ||
Malaria and other vector-borne diseases | X | X | ||||
Injuries and poisonings | X | X | X | X | X | X |
Mental health conditions | X | |||||
Cardiovascular diseases | X | X | X | X | ||
Cancer | X | X | ||||
Chronic respiratory diseases | X | X |
Climatic Elements | Potential Impacts | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Constructive | Destructive | |||
Health | Agriculture | Health | Agriculture | |
Drought | Decrease in vectors and vector-borne diseases | Parasites and vector growths | Water quality and availability is affected; water-related diseases and death increase; hunger | Loss of water; reduction in crop productivity; economic growth |
Flood | - | - | Poor water quality; injuries; increase in vectors, water-related vector-borne and zoonotic diseases; heat stress; cardiovascular failure; anxiety; depression | Reduction in crop productivity and economic growth; infrastructure destruction |
Heat and humidity | - | May increase crop productivity | Decrease in water availability; skin infection; increase in vectors and vector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue fever, and Japanese encephalitis | Increase in vectors and pests, and related agricultural problems and crop diseases |
Salt water intrusion | Decrease in the growth of pathogens and related diseases | - | Water quality and supply degradation; diseases, | Agricultural land loss; increase in soil salinity; water supply and quality deterioration |
Year | Suspected Cases | Cases Laboratory-Confirmed | Deaths |
---|---|---|---|
2006 | 4961 | 1931 | 41 |
2007 | 2304 | 1226 | 18 |
2008 | 2792 | 2469 | 17 |
2009 | 1940 | 1085 | 13 |
2010 | 15,901 | 11,024 | 40 |
2011 | 252,935 | 17,057 | 219 |
2012 | 3913 | 639 (Karachi only) | - |
2013 | 9037 | 8546 | 33 |
2014 | - | 504 | 6 |
2015 | - | 327 (Sindh) | - |
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Ahmed, T.; Scholz, M.; Al-Faraj, F.; Niaz, W. Water-Related Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Subsequently on Public Health: A Review for Generalists with Particular Reference to Pakistan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 1051. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111051
Ahmed T, Scholz M, Al-Faraj F, Niaz W. Water-Related Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Subsequently on Public Health: A Review for Generalists with Particular Reference to Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016; 13(11):1051. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111051
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhmed, Toqeer, Miklas Scholz, Furat Al-Faraj, and Wajeeha Niaz. 2016. "Water-Related Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Subsequently on Public Health: A Review for Generalists with Particular Reference to Pakistan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 11: 1051. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111051