How Do Households Respond to Unreliable Water Supplies? A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- How do households respond to unreliable water supplies?
- What factors influence the choice of coping strategies, and how are they distributed across socio-economic groups?
- What are the costs of coping strategies?
- What health and social outcomes are associated with coping with unreliability?
- How effective are these strategies e.g., are water quantity, quality and pressure needs met?
2. Methods
2.1. Conceptual Background on Water Supply Reliability and Coping
2.2. Literature Search Methods and Selection Criteria
- Report on coping strategies relating to unreliability in the performance or functionality of water supply systems
- Report on domestic/household water supply
- Report data from developing countries
- Based on empirical research
2.3. Quality Appraisal
2.4. Categorization of Coping Strategies
3. Results
3.1. Coping Strategies
3.1.1. Enhancing Water Quantity
3.1.2. Accommodating Water Supply Unreliability
3.1.3. Improving Water Quality
3.1.4. Enhancing Water Pressure
3.1.5. Collective Action and Voice
3.2. Determinants of Coping Strategies Adopted
3.3. Costs of Coping
3.4. Health and Social Outcomes Related to Coping
3.5. Effectiveness of Coping Strategies Adopted
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author(s), Year | Clarity of Research Objective | Description of Study Methods | Description of Conditions | Reporting of Results | Researcher Bias | Other Validity Issues | Score | Overall Risk of Bias |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baisa et al., 2010 [10] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 10 | Low |
Dutta et al., 2005 [13] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 10 | Low |
Mycoo, 1996 [14] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 10 | Low |
Humplick et al., 1993 [16]; Madanat & Humplick, 1993 [17] * | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | High |
Kudat et al., 1993 [18] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 | Moderate |
Kudat et al., 1997 [21] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 | Moderate |
Choe et al., 1996 [22] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 10 | Low |
Zérah, 1998 [24], 2000 [24] * | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | Moderate |
Pattanayak et al., 2005 [27] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Cook et al., 2016 [28] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Chaminuka & Nyatsanza, 2013 [29] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | High |
Nganyanyuka et al., 2014 [30] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Moderate |
Olsson & Karlsson, 2010 [31] | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | Moderate |
Potter & Darmane, 2010 [32] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 8 | Moderate |
Virjee & Gaskin, 2010 [34] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Caprara et al., 2009 [35] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Smiley, 2016 [36] | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Moderate |
Gulyani et al., 2005 [37] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 9 | Moderate |
Widiyati, 2011 [38] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | Moderate |
Gerlach & Franceys, 2009 [39] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 9 | Moderate |
Ngwenya & Kgathi, 2006 [40] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | Moderate |
Katuwal & Bohara, 2011 [41] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | Moderate |
Vásquez et al., 2009 [42] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Vasquez & Espaillat, 2016 [43] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Jamal & Rahman, 2012 [44] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | High |
Vásquez, 2012 [45] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | Low |
Altaf, 1994 [46] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 9 | Moderate |
Matsinhe et al., 2014 [47] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | Moderate |
Author(s), Year | Study Objective(s) | Setting, Location | Type of Supply | Sample |
---|---|---|---|---|
Baisa et al., 2010 [10] | Estimate the welfare costs of unreliable water supply | Urban, Mexico | Piped connections | Mexican National Household Survey of Income and Expenditure; sample size not reported |
Dutta et al., 2005 [13] | Examine how much money people in unplanned areas are willing to pay to support a policy that provides them with a better and reliable water supply | Urban, India | Piped connections | Multistage stratified random sampling of 1100 households |
Mycoo, 1996 [14] | Examine cost recovery potential based on household willingness to pay more for an improved service and water pricing | Urban, Trinidad | Piped connections | Stratified sample of 420 households, stratified according to slope, land elevation and income. Survey of households and interviews of professionals in the water sector |
Humplick et al., 1993 [16]; Madanat & Humplick, 1993 [17] | Present a model and methods for analysis of households’ responses to unreliable water supply | Urban, Pakistan and Turkey | Piped connections and communal standpipes | Case studies with sample of 30 households in Turkey and 900 in Pakistan |
Kudat et al., 1993 [18] | Assess households’ responses to unreliable water supply | Urban India, Pakistan and Turkey | Piped connections and communal standpipes | Case studies of 30 households in Turkey, 900 in Pakistan and 1011 in India |
Kudat et al., 1997 [21] | Present a methodology for a Social assessment for the World Bank’s Greater Baku Water Supply Rehabilitation Project | Urban, Azerbaijan | Piped connections | Rapid user surveys with 150 respondents and 400 respondents, consultations, stakeholder workshop |
Choe et al., 1996 [22] | Estimate the real costs of an intermittent supply and predict how much people would pay for a continuous full-service metered supply | Urban, India | Piped connections and communal standpipes | Random-stratified cluster sample of 1100 households drawn from the 1995 electoral roll |
Zérah, 1998 [23]; 2000 [24] | Article 1(1998): Measure the costs of unreliability; Article 2 (2000): Estimate the household demand for a service by assessing the actual behaviour adopted by households when they have to cope with an inadequate service | Urban India | Piped connections | Two stratified sample of 678 households in four zones of urban Delhi |
Pattanayak et al., 2005 [27] | Evaluate how coping costs and willingness to pay vary across types of water users and income | Urban, Nepal | Piped connections, communal standpipes | Clustered sampling (probability-to-size), 1500 households in five municipalities of Kathmandu Valley |
Chaminuka & Nyatsanza, 2013 [29] | Assess the causes and extent of water shortages and coping mechanisms used by affected residents in Harare | Urban, Zimbabwe | Piped connections | Convenience sample of 40 households obtained through snowballing techniques |
Nganyanyuka et al., 2014 [30] | Document details of citizens’ strategies for accessing water in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania | Urban, Tanzania | Piped connections, communal standpipes | Purposive selection of two municipalities, and within these, four streets were selected, and 22 persons interviewed. Interviews were also conducted with municipal water engineers, “street leaders”, NGO staff and water vendors, who were identified through snowballing techniques |
Olsson & Karlsson, 2010 [31] | Investigate how poor women cope with water problems and constraints to women accessing water | Rural, Zanzibar | Piped supply; yard taps; communal standpipe | Snowball sampling, with key informant, individual and group interviews with 19 participants |
Potter & Darmame, 2010 [32] | Examine potential social equity dimensions in the use of water within Greater Amman | Urban, Jordan | Piped connections | Snowball sample of 25 low income and 25 high income households |
Virjee & Gaskin, 2010 [34] | Ascertain the willingness to pay for changes in the level of service experienced by users | Urban and rural, Trinidad and Tobago | Piped connections and communal standpipes | The Central Statistical Office’s Continuous Sample Survey of Population sampling method was used to randomly select 1419 households, using a two-stage stratification scheme based on geography and labour force characteristics |
Caprara et al., 2009 [35] | Investigate the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and community practices affecting Aedes aegypti vector ecology | Urban, Brazil | Piped connections and communal standpipes | Purposive sample of 204 households, with mixed methods descriptive case study approach |
Smiley, 2016 [36] | Objective not specified; mention of highlighting variability of water access restrictions | Urban, Tanzania | Piped connections | 3 wards selected out of a total of 90; surveyed conducted among 150 households, and interviews officials at ministries, water utilities and ward leaders |
Gulyani et al., 2005 [37] | Examine current water use and unit costs and test the willingness of the unconnected to pay for piped water, yard connections, or an improved water kiosk (standpipe) service | Urban, Kenya | Piped connections, yard taps, communal standpipes | 674 randomly selected households were interviewed in 22 sites in the three urban areas |
Widiyati, 2011 [38] | Assess willingness to pay to avoid the cost of intermittent water supply in Bandung Municipality, Indonesia | Urban, Indonesia | Piped connections | Purposive selection of 31 sub-districts in Bandung, from which 200 households were surveyed |
Gerlach & Franceys, 2009 [39] | Investigate the status of water supply service and regulatory arrangements with respect to poor and vulnerable consumers | Urban Jordan | Piped connections | Semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, survey of 10 households, each in 9 selected poor neighbourhoods and small-scale surveying of private water tanker operations |
Ngwenya & Kgathi, 2006 [40] | Investigate access to potable water in HIV/AIDS related home-based care households in five rural communities | Rural, Botswana | Piped connections, piped yard taps, communal standpipes | Two- stage stratified random sampling involving 39 caregivers, using structured and informal interviews, participant observation |
Katuwal & Bohara, 2011 [41] | Estimate the effect of wealth, education, information, gender, caste/ethnicity and opinion about water quality on drinking water treatment behaviours | Rural and urban, Nepal | Piped connections and communal standpipes | Multi-stage sample of 2000 households, as part of the ‘Water Survey of Kathmandu-2005‘ |
Vásquez et al., 2009 [42] | Elicit household willingness to pay responses for safe and reliable drinking water in Parral | Urban, Mexico | Piped connections | Stratified random sample of 398 households in 6 geographic zones |
Vásquez & Espaillat, 2016 [43] | Investigate households’ willingness to pay for improved water services | Setting not specified (San Lorenzo), Guatemala | Piped connections | Random sample of 500 households |
Jamal & Raman., 2012 [44] | Explore impacts of gas and water supply crises and document coping strategies | Urban, Bangladesh | Type of supply not clear | Participatory rural appraisal applied to urban setting, sample size not reported |
Vásquez, 2012 [45] | Investigate the relationship between perceptions of water supply reliability and household expenditures on water storage devices in León, Nicaragua | Urban, Nicaragua | Piped connections | Stratified random sample of 891 households in 8 geographic zones |
Altaf, 1994 [46] | Describe household response to inadequate public piped water supply systems and highlight the economic implications of their efforts to improve level of service and reliability | Rural and urban Pakistan | Communal standpipes | Stratified random samples of 968 urban and 756 rural households |
Matsinhe et al., 2014 [47] | Evaluate the effect of intermittency and household storage on the quality of drinking water distributed in Maputo | Urban, Mozambique | Piped connections | Water samples collected from water works, distribution centres, household tanks and taps in the network. Number of households sampled not reported |
Baisa (2010) [10] | Dutta (2005) [13] | Mycoo (1996) [14] | Humplick (1993) [16]; Madanat (1993) [17] | Kudat (1993) [18] | Kudat (1997) [21] | Choe (1996) [21] | Zerah (1998; 2000) [23,24] | Pattanayak (2005) [27] | Cook (2016) [28] | Chaminuka (2013) [29] | Nganyanyuka (2014) [30] | Olsson (2010) [31] | Potter (2010) [32] | Virjee (2010) [34] | Caprara (2009) [35] | Smiey (2016) [36] | Gulyani (2005) [37] | Widiyati ( 2011) [38] | Gerlach (2009) [39] | Ngwenya (2006) [40] | Katuwal (2011) [41] | Vasquez (2009) [42] | Vasquez (2016) [43] | Jamal (2012) [44] | Vasquez (2012) [45] | Altaf (1994) [46] | Matsinhe (2014) [47] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Install storage tanks | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||
Store water in buckets, bottles etc. | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||||||||||||
Collect water from alternative sources | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||
Drill wells, install hand pumps | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||
Purchase water | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||
Install electric pump | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||
Treat water (boil/filter/chlorinate) | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||
Recycle water | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
Use water sparingly | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Harvest rainwater | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Reschedule activities | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||||||
Protest/complain | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||||||
Move to another house/area | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Install extra storage space | ✔ | ✔ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Set up illegal connections | ✔ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reduce baths and/or alter diet | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ |
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Majuru, B.; Suhrcke, M.; Hunter, P.R. How Do Households Respond to Unreliable Water Supplies? A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 1222. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13121222
Majuru B, Suhrcke M, Hunter PR. How Do Households Respond to Unreliable Water Supplies? A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2016; 13(12):1222. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13121222
Chicago/Turabian StyleMajuru, Batsirai, Marc Suhrcke, and Paul R. Hunter. 2016. "How Do Households Respond to Unreliable Water Supplies? A Systematic Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13, no. 12: 1222. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13121222