Removal of Phenolic Compounds from Water Using Sewage Sludge-Based Activated Carbon Adsorption: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Classifications of Phenolic Compounds
3. Production of Sewage Sludge and Its Potential Use as an Adsorbent
4. SBAC Production Processes
4.1. Drying of Dewatered Sludge and Its Pyrolysis and Carbonization
4.2. Physically Activated SBAC
4.3. Chemically Activated SBAC
4.3.1. ZnCl2 Activation
4.3.2. H2SO4 Activation
4.3.3. KOH/NaOH Activation
4.3.4. Other Activation Methods for SBAC Production
5. Adsorptive Characteristics of SBAC
5.1. Pore Structure of SBAC
5.2. Functional Groups on the Surface of SBAC
6. Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on SBAC
6.1. Adsorptive Characteristics of Phenolic Compounds
6.2. Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on Dried Sludge
6.3. Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on Physically Activated SBAC
6.4. Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on Chemically Activated SBAC
6.5. Effect of Operation Conditions
7. Isotherms and Mechanisms of Phenolic Compound Adsorption on SBAC
7.1. Adsorption Isotherms
7.2. Mechanisms of Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on SBAC
- Characteristics of the SBAC. These include the pore size distribution (surface area, pore volume), presence of oxygen functionalities on the carbon surface, ash content and others like mineral content.
- Characteristics of the adsorbate. These include the molecular size of the adsorbate, its pKa value, functional groups and polarity.
- Experimental conditions. These include the pH of the solution, temperature, ionic nature and concentration of the solution.
8. Regeneration of Spent SBAC
8.1. Thermal Regeneration of Spent SBAC
8.2. Chemical Regeneration of Spent SBAC
8.3. Electrochemical Regeneration of Spent SBAC
9. Sustainable SBAC Production and Utilization for PC Removal from Water
10. Conclusions
- Different SBACs exhibiting divergent physicochemical characteristics as well as adsorption performances for removal of PC from water were attributed to the diverse sources of SS as well as activation techniques employed for SBAC production.
- Although chemical activation techniques produce better SBAC textural properties and superior PC adsorptive performance compared to physical activation, t more research works are needed to harness the advances in material science to improve the functional groups and textural properties of SBACs as well as the low performance of physical activation methods.
- Investigation of new and novel chemical activation reagents and combined chemical and physical activation systems are rare. Thus, these need to be explored for producing better SBACs for improved effectiveness of PC removal from water.
- The Freundlich and Langmuir models were the most satisfactorily isotherm models that describe well the uptake of PC on both dried and activated SBAC.
- Even though practical industrial and large scale applications of water and wastewater GAC treatment processes are based on the continuous process hence rendering fixed bed studies more beneficial. However, very few studies have investigated the adsorption behavior of PC on SBACs using continuous modes for breakthrough curve analysis.
- Most of the investigated PC mainly included parent the phenol molecule and simple derivatives like chlorophenols, bromophenols and nitrophenols. Thus, the adsorption performances of SBACs for the removal of toxic compounds such as catechol, resorcinol, benzoquinone and several other PC of environmental significant in single and multi-systems are also important to be evaluated.
- Despite the established economic benefits of regeneration of spent SBACs using different techniques, studies that evaluate the regeneration potential of spent SBACs employed for adsorption of PC are very rare.
- Studies focusing on PC adsorptive performance on SBACs under continuous mode (that are more relevant for industrial applications) in both single and multi-pollutant aqueous systems to cover a wide range of PC of environmental concerns are lacking, thus they are recommended for future research.
- It is also recommended that the production processes and utilization of SBAC need to be economically re-evaluated and assessed within the realm of environmental sustainability via LCA analyses.
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AAS | Aerobic activated sludge |
AGS | anaerobic granular sludge |
AAS | Anaerobic activated sludge |
ADWWTPS | Aerobically digested WWTP sludge |
ADDWWTP | Anaerobically digested and dewatered sludge |
AGCWS | Aerobic granular sludge from cosmetic factory |
ASB | Activated sludge biomass |
AS (50%) MR | Activated sludge (50%) immobilized in Mowital® B30H resin |
ASS | Activated Sludge System |
AWWTPS | Anaerobic wastewater treatment plant sludge |
CFS | Cosmetic factory sludge |
DAEDS | Dewatered aerobically digested sludge |
DASS | Dried aerobic sewage sludge |
DMADS | Dewatered anaerobically digested sludge |
DSBS | Dewatered secondary biological sludge |
MDSS | Mechanical dewatered sewage sludge |
DUSS | Dewatered undigested sewage sludge |
DRAWS | Dewatered raw sludge |
FIS | Fertilizer industry sludge |
GAC | Granular activated carbon(s) |
LS | Limed sludge |
LCA | Life cycle assessment |
PC | Phenolic compounds |
POES | Palm oil effluent sludge |
SBET | Adsorbent specific surface area measured using Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method |
SBAC | Sludge based activated carbon |
SSTP | sewage sludge from sludge treatment plant |
VLS | Viscous liquid sludge |
WBS | Waste biological sludge |
WWTP | Wastewater treatment plant |
WWTPS | Wastewater treatment plant sludge |
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Sludge Type | Proximate Analysis | Ultimate Analysis | Ref. | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SBET (m2 g−1) | Ash Content (wt % of Dried Matter) | Carbon (wt %) | Volatile Matter | Moisture Content | Particle Size | pH | C | H | N | S | O | Heavy Metals Cu Ni Pb Zn Hg | ||||||
PMS | 20 | 34 | 600 um | - | 34 | 5 | - | 0.24 | 41 | [4] | ||||||||
ADWWTPS | 22 | 57.7 | 8.5 | 9.3 | 0.5 | 24.0 | [24] | |||||||||||
VLS | 2.9 | 22.0 | 39.4 | 5.6 | 6.4 | 0.9 | 19.8 | 306 | 76 | 64 | 634 | <5 | [25] | |||||
LS (40% lime) | 4.8 | 57 | 27.9 | 3.5 | 2.9 | 0.9 | 18.7 | 201 | 32 | 49 | 320 | <5 | [25] | |||||
POES | 34,000 mg/L | 125 um | 4.7 | 0.89 | 2.3 | [26] | ||||||||||||
AGCWS | <3 | 23 | 48.7 | 0.1–0.25 | 6.9 | 48.7 | 7.5 | 9.4 | 0.6 | 10.8 | [9] | |||||||
Municipal DRAWS | 20.4 | 41 | 65.9 | 10 mm | [27] | |||||||||||||
Municipal DUSS | 32.6 | 6.8 | 60.6 | 82 | 3 mm | [28] | ||||||||||||
PMS | 36.4 | 44 | 0.33 | 0.3 mm | [29] | |||||||||||||
WWTP | 0.96 | 43.95 | 2.81 | 53.24 | 2.32 | 8.14 | [30] | |||||||||||
PMS | 36.4 | 25 mm | 44.8 | 0.4 | [31] |
Sewage Treatment | Source of Sludge | Total Solids (%) |
---|---|---|
Centrifuge | Activated sludge | 14–20 |
Anaerobic digester | 15–35 | |
Aerobic digester | 8–10 | |
Vacuum filter | Activated sludge | 12–18 |
Anaerobic digester (mixture) | 17–23 | |
Belt press | Activated sludge | 12–18 |
Anaerobic digester (mixture) | 17–23 | |
Anaerobic digester | 12–30 | |
Aerobic digester | 12–25 | |
Filter press | Activated sludge | 27–33 |
Anaerobic digester (mixture) | 29–35 |
Sludge Type | Carbonization Conditions | Physical Activation Conditions | Pre/Post Treatment | Textural Properties | Target Compound | Uptake (mg/g) | Ref. | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T (°C) | t (h) | HR (min−1) | atm | T (°C) | t (h) | HR (min−1) | atm | SBET (m2/g) | Vmicro (cm3/g) | Vmeso (cm3/g) | Dp (nm) | pH | |||||
VLS LS | 600 | 1 | Na Na na | N2 N2 | Not activated Not activated | 59 | 0.025 | 8.9 | Phenol Phenol | 170 | [25] | ||||||
1000 | 1 | 96 | 0.036 | 10.6 | 182 | ||||||||||||
600 | 1 | 33 | 0.01 | 12.4 | 161 | ||||||||||||
800 | 1 | 62 | 0.015 | 12.5 | 185 | ||||||||||||
AGCWS | 300 | 0.5 | 10 | N2 | Not Activated | Washed, dried/washed | 10 | - | 7.6 | - | [39] | ||||||
450 | 20 | ||||||||||||||||
600 | 38 | ||||||||||||||||
750 | 44 | ||||||||||||||||
AWWTPS | 500 Microwave heating, 980 W | 1 | - | N2 | Not Activated | Washed and dried/None | 641 | - | - | - | 7 | Hydroquinone | 1218.3 | [19] | |||
0.2 | - | N2 | 540 | 1202.1 | |||||||||||||
AWWTPS AWWTPS + tyres (1:1) | 650 | 0.5 | 40 | na | Not activated | Washed and dried/None | 60 | 0.04 | 0.05 | Phenol | 9.8 | [51] | |||||
650 | 0.5 | 40 | na | Not activated | Washed and dried/None | 59 | 0.03 | 0.08 | Phenol | 10.1 | |||||||
POES | 300 | 0.5 | air | 150 | 2 | - | H2O | Washed and Dried/None | Phenol | - | [26] | ||||||
500 | 0.5 | air | - | - | |||||||||||||
800 | 0.5 | air | - | 12.078 | |||||||||||||
- | - | - | - | - | |||||||||||||
FIS | 500 | 1 | Air | - | - | - | - | Dried/1 M HCl | 380 | - | - | - | 4-bromophenol 2-bromophenol 2,4-dibromophenol | 40.7 170.4 190.2 | [52] | ||
DMADS DRAWS DSBS | 900 900 900 900 600 | 1 | 10 10 10 10 | N2 N2 N2 N2 N2 | - 838 - 838 875 | - 1.21 - 1.34 1 | - 0.7 g - 0.7 g 1.5 L | - Steam - Steam CO2 | Sterilized-dried/None Sterilized-dried/None Sterilized-dried/None | 125 155 180 265 90 | 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.11 0.03 | 0.11 0.08 | 4.4 4.5 2.7 3.5 2.5 | Phenol | 94 117.5 131 150 112 | [42] | |
DMADS DRAWS | 1000 - 950 250/500/1000 - | 0.5 | 5 10 5 - | N2 N2 - | - 838 838 925 838 838 838 - 900 925 | - 1.21 1.21 1 1.34 1.4 1.21 - 1.67 1 | - 10 °C 10 °C 10 °C 10 °C - 10 °C 10 °C | - Steam Steam CO2 Steam Steam Steam - Steam CO2 | Sterilized-dried/None Sterlized-dried/HCL (0 & 1 pH) Sterilized-dried/None Sterilized-dried/soaked in RO-24 h Sterilized-dried/HCL(3%) Sterilized-dried/None Sterilized-dried/None Sterilized-dried/None | 153.4 179.3 na 169.1 268.9 497.4 269.11 8.1/12.1/150.1 214.4 227.8 | 8.9 7.6 8.1 6.1/7.3/9.8 10.1 8.4 | Phenol | 28.4% CWAO 62.7% 58.6% 65% 93% 62% 88/56/51 69.3 68.6 | [53] | |||
DRAWS | 1000 | na | 10 | N2 | 838 | 1.33 | 0.7 g with nitrogen | steam | Sterilized with steam/washed | 265 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 3.5 | Phenol | 244.66 | [27] | |
P-Chloro phenol | 216.2 | ||||||||||||||||
p-nitro phenol | 235 | ||||||||||||||||
DMADS | 950 | 0.5 | 10 | N2 | 838 | 1.21 | 10 °C | Steam | Sterilized-dried/None | 269.1 | - | - | - | 8.1 | Phenol | 0.65~(5 g/L) | [54] |
o-Cresol | 1 | ||||||||||||||||
o-chlorophenol | 0.82 | ||||||||||||||||
p-nitrophenol | 0.06 | ||||||||||||||||
AGCWS | None | 700/800 | 0.5 | 10 °C | CO2 | Washed/none | 11/20 | 0.01/0.02 | None | None | 4-chloro phenol | - | [9] | ||||
2 | 75/94 | 0.05/0.04 | 187/301.6 | ||||||||||||||
4 | 79/97 | 0.06/0.09 | 185.4/241.8 | ||||||||||||||
200/300/400 | 0.5 | 10 °C | Air | 7/13/15 | <0.01/0.01/0.03 | None | None | 4-chloro phenol | 31.2/170.8/145.8 | ||||||||
2 | 34/51/92 | 0.03/0.05/0.06 | 65.6/181.9/192.54 | ||||||||||||||
4 | 47/53/91 | 0.05/0.05/0.07 | 180.8/154.7/223.22 |
Type of Sludge | Carbonisation Conditions | Chemical Activation Conditions | Pre/Post Treatment | Textural Properties | Target Compound | Uptake Capacity (mg/g) | Ref | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T (°C) | t (h) | HR (min−1) | atm | Reagents | T (°C) | t (h) | HR (min−1) | atm | SBET (m2/g) | Vmicro (cm3/g) | Vmeso (cm3/g) | Dp (nm) | pH | |||||
ADDDS & coconut husk (1:2) | 500/600/700 | 2 | 15 | ZnCl2 (3 M) ZnCl2 (5 M) ZnCl2 (7 M) | 25 25 25 | 24 24 24 | Dried/Dried-carbonized-HCL | 448/648/425 | phenol | 5.2/5.2/4.0 | [58] | |||||||
600 | 2 | 10 | 750 | 6.7 | ||||||||||||||
500/600/700 | 2 | 15 | 725/648/525 | 5.2/5.9/4.4 | ||||||||||||||
600 | 2 | 10 | 867 | 5.9 | ||||||||||||||
500/600/700 | 2 | 15 | 660/700/550 | 4.9/5.7/4.3 | ||||||||||||||
600 | 2 | 10 | 690 | 7.0 | ||||||||||||||
PMS | 800 | 2 | 20 °C | N2, 70 mL/min | ZnCl2:sludge = 3.5 | 85 | 8 | Na | Na | Dried/22 h light exposure-carbonisation- and HCl-dried | 1092 | 1.13 | 10 | 7 | Phenol | - | [4] | |
AWWTPS | Not carbonised | H2SO4 (1:1) ZnCl2 (1:1) | 650 650 | 0.5 0.083 | 40 5 | NA | Dried/HCl | 216 472 | 0.09 0.10 | Phenol | 24.8 88.16 | [51] | ||||||
PMS | 700 | 1 | 15 °C | N2 | ZnCl2 (2:1) | 80 | 8 | Na | Dried/HCl-dried | 316.32 | 0.4357 | 6.124 | phenol | 15.58 | [29] | |||
PMS | 560 | 0.41 | 20 °C | N2 | ZnCl2 (0.9:1) | 80 | 6 | Dried/HCl-dried | 907.20 | 0.42 | 3.13 | 4.6 | Phenol 4-Nonyl phenol 2-chloro phenol | 370 296 325 | [31] | |||
DS | 600 | 1 | - | - | ZnCl2 (40%) | RT | 24 | Na | HCl | 195 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 3.5 | phenol | 45.12 | [28] | ||
DS | 500 | 1 | 20 °C | N2 | 0–2 M citric acid and 0.5 M ZnCl2 | RT | 24 | Dried/carbonisation-HCL-dried | 792.4 | 4-chloro phenol Phenol | 372.94 189.16 | [61] | ||||||
AWWTPS | 625 | 0.5 | 40 °C | N2 | H2SO4 (1:1) | Na | 48 | NA | NA | Dried/carbonisation-HCL-dried | 390 | NA | 0.12/0.5 0.12 | Phenol (Indigo carmine + phenol) | 42.04/29.46 10.2 | [59] | ||
DWWTPS | 650 | 1 | 10 °C | NA | 3 M H2SO4 (1:1) | Na | 48 | Dried/carbonised-HCl-Dried | 166.20 | Na | Na | 5.5 | 2-chlor phenol | 47.98 | [30] | |||
WBS | H2SO4 | 700 | 0.5 | NA | NA | Dried/carbonised | 253 | 0.08 | Na | Na | Phenol | 10 | [24] | |||||
AGCWS | Not carbonised | KOH (1:1) | 450/750 | 0.5 | 10 | N2 | Dried/HCl | 131/950 | <0.01/0.40 | 0.12/0.23 | 4-chloro phenol | 140.8/170.6 | [9] | |||||
KOH (3:1) | 450/750 | 0.5 | 10 | N2 | 262/1832 | 0.01/0.75 | 0.16/0.36 | 146.54/265.08 | ||||||||||
DMADS | Not carbonised | K2CO3 (1:1) | 800 | 1 | 18–20 | N2 | Dried/washed with water Dried/washed with HCL (5%) | 421.8 863.8 | 8.2 5.2 | Phenol | Oxidation 87.1% (5 g/L) 93.2% | [53] | ||||||
DMADS | Not carbonised | K2CO3 (1:1) | 800 | 1 | 18-20 | N2 | Dried/washed with water | 421.8 | 8.2 | Phenol o-Cresol o-chlorophenol p-nitrophenol | Oxidation 87.1% (5 g/L) 0.88 0.83 0.06 | [54] | ||||||
WWTPS | 1000 | 1 | 5 °C | N2, 50 mL/min | NaOH (1:1) | 500/600/800 | 2 | 5 | N2 | Carbonised-HCl/washed-dried | 319/346/307 | 0.438/0.465/0.403 | 17.2/12.3/14 | NA | phenol | -/96.15/- | [44] |
Type of Sludge | Drying Conditions | Diameter (mm) | Adsorbate | Temperature (°C) | pH | Model Used | Uptake Capacity (mg/g) | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PMS | 60/24 h | 0.006 mm | o-Chlorophenol | 25 | 1 | Langmuir | 281.1 | [92] |
p-Chlorophenol | 25 | 1 | 287.2 | |||||
DAS | - | Phenol | 25 | 1.0 | Langmuir/Freundlich | 91.0 | [94] | |
AAS | 60/24 h | - | Phenol | 1.0 | Langmuir/Freundlich | 180.9 | [95] | |
WWTPS | HNO3 washed and rinse with 0.1 NaCl | Phenol | NA | 7 | None | 0.06 | [96] | |
AWWTP | 60/24 h | NA | Phenol | 40 | 8 | Freundlich | 42.7 | [97] |
AGS | Dried | NA | 4-Chlorophenol | 25 | 3.6 | Langmuir/Freundlich | 7.77 | [90] |
AAS | 60/24 h | 0.775 | Phenol | 30 | NA | Langmuir | 90.5421 | [98] |
Binary(phenol + Pb) | 30 | Langmuir | 30.7843 | |||||
SSTP 5% (w/v) | 60/24 h | <0.1 mm | Phenol | NA | 6–8 | None | 17.3 from 100 ppm phenol | [99] |
AS (50%) MR | NA | 1 | Phenol | NA | 1.0 | Breakthrough curves | 9.0 | [100] |
ASB | 105/6 h | NA | Nonylphenol | 22 | NA | Freundlich | 90% removal from 4.15 mg/L | [101] |
Type of Sludge | Activation Method | SBET | Phenolic Compound | Langmuir | Freundlich | Ref | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qm (mg/g) | A (L/mg) | R2 | KF | n | R2 | |||||
DASS | KOH (3:1) | 1832 | 4-Chlorophenol | 265.8 | 0.0156 | 0.994 | [9] | |||
CO2 (800) | 94 | 4-Chlorophenol | 301 | 0.0014 | 0.972 | |||||
Air (400) | 91 | 4-Chlorophenol | 22.96 | 0.00169 | 0.965 | |||||
AWWTPS | H2SO4 (1:1) | 390 | Phenol | 42.04 | 0.02 | 0.969 | 6.33 | 3.51 | 0.9748 | [59] |
WWTPS | NaOH (1:1 | 346 | Phenol | 96.154 | 0.128 | 0.979 | 18.065 | 2.48 | 0.989 | [44] |
AWWTPS | ZnCL2 (40%) | 195.28 | Phenol | 18.3 | 0.114 | - | [120] | |||
2-Chlorophenol | 51.8 | 0.118 | - | |||||||
4-Chlorophenol | 58.1 | 0.129 | - | |||||||
2,4-Dichlorophenol | 137.0 | 0.162 | - | |||||||
DWWTPS | 3 M H2SO4 (1:1) | 166.20 | 2-Chlorophenol | 47.977 | 0.485 | 0.918 | 18 | 4.18 | 0.977 | [30] |
DWWTPS | 3 M H2SO4 (1:1) | 162.2 | Phenol | 26.16 | 0.109 | 0.927 | 6.059 | 3.02 | 0.996 | [60] |
DRAWS | 838-steam | 265 | Phenol | 244.4 | 0.0007 | 0.972 | 0.009 | 0.469 | 0.992 | [27] |
p-Chlorophenol | 216.2 | 0.00967 | 0.990 | 0.004 | 0.144 | 0.879 | ||||
p-Nitrophenol | 235.5 | 0.00095 | 0.559 | 0.841 | 1.354 | 0.925 | ||||
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid | 150.4 | 0.00095 | 0.175 | 0.031 | 0.741 | 0.889 | ||||
PMS | ZnCL2 (0.9:1) | 907.20 | Phenol | 370.4 | 0.008 | 0.988 | 9.897 | 1.688 | 0.957 | [31] |
4-Nitrophenol | 296.1 | 0.0631 | 0.993 | 53.75 | 2.935 | 0.960 | ||||
2-Chlorophenol | 325.1 | 0.0249 | 0.994 | 26.58 | 2.144 | 0.944 | ||||
CFS | N2 (750) | 44 | 4-Chlorophenol | 37.88 | 0.004 | 0.992 | 0.0012 | 2.027 | 0.968 | [39] |
PMS | ZnCL2 (1:3.5) | 1092 | Phenol | None | None | None | 0.44 | 1.149 | NA | [4] |
DUSS | ZnCL2 (40%) | 195 | Phenol(W) | 45.12 | 38.8 | 0.665 | 0.044 | 1.26 | 0.978 | [28] |
Phenol(C) | 49.25 | 0.402 | 0.675 | 0.143 | 1.40 | 0.667 | ||||
PMS | ZnCL2 (2:1) | 316.32 | Phenol | 15.585 | 1.0185 | 0.962 | 7.3781 | 3.534 | 0.996 | [29] |
44.4 (LF) | 0.013 (LF) | 0.998 (LF) | ||||||||
VLS | 600 N2 | 59 | Phenol | 170 | 0.0022 | 0.975 | 4.9 | 1.29 | 0.961 | [25] |
1000 N2 | 96 | 182 | 0.0051 | 0.988 | 0.2 | 0.617 | 0.936 | |||
LS | 600 N2 | 33 | Phenol | 161 | 0.0032 | 0.862 | 0.6 | 0.75 | 0.888 | [25] |
800 N2 | 62 | 185 | 0.0034 | 0.897 | 0.5 | 0.74 | 0.826 | |||
POES | 800(Air) | NA | Phenol | 12.078 | 0.069 | 0.957 | 2.048 | 2.79 | 0.999 | [26] |
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Mu’azu, N.D.; Jarrah, N.; Zubair, M.; Alagha, O. Removal of Phenolic Compounds from Water Using Sewage Sludge-Based Activated Carbon Adsorption: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101094
Mu’azu ND, Jarrah N, Zubair M, Alagha O. Removal of Phenolic Compounds from Water Using Sewage Sludge-Based Activated Carbon Adsorption: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(10):1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101094
Chicago/Turabian StyleMu’azu, Nuhu Dalhat, Nabeel Jarrah, Mukarram Zubair, and Omar Alagha. 2017. "Removal of Phenolic Compounds from Water Using Sewage Sludge-Based Activated Carbon Adsorption: A Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 10: 1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101094