Living Close to Natural Outdoor Environments in Four European Cities: Adults’ Contact with the Environments and Physical Activity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Contact with Natural Outdoor Environments
1.2. Overall Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity
1.3. NOE Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sample
2.2. Design
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Exposure
Residential Availability of Natural Outdoor Environments
2.3.2. Outcomes
Contact with NOE
Overall MVPA
NOE MVPA
2.3.3. Covariates
2.4. Statistical Analyses
2.5. Sensitivity Analyses
2.5.1. Low Prevalence of Exposure Categories
2.5.2. Buffer Type for Abstracting NOE Indicators
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
3.2. Contact with NOE
3.3. Overall MVPA
3.4. NOE MVPA
3.5. Sensitivity Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Contact with NOE
4.2. Overall MVPA
4.3. NOE MVPA
4.4. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
City | Invited n | Willing to Participate n (% from the Invited Ones) | Participated n | Finally Included in the Analyses |
---|---|---|---|---|
Barcelona | 1044 | 379 (37%) | 109 | 107 |
Stoke-on-Trent | 99 | 92 | ||
From the original sample | 1044 | 164 (17%) | 49 | 45 |
Further approaches | 4814 | 107 (2.22%) | 50 | 47 |
Doetinchem | 861 | 224 (26%) | 111 | 105 |
Kaunas | 997 | 280 (28%) | 112 | 104 |
Appendix A.1. CalFit Data Treatment
- (1)
- CalFit-recorded location data (including GPS and, when GPS data were not available, wireless network triangulation data) were converted into a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data layer. We then attached the street network maps, and participant geocoded home and work addresses to the location data layer. After this, we resampled to 10 s to reduce the measurement error in the geolocation. Then we scanned the data sequentially looking for clusters of points based on the angular variability of its trajectory. This process identifies only the clearest clusters. Then, we made a spatial and temporal query around each point being part of a cluster to identify also the temporary closer points that are also spatially closer (i.e., points under the space and time threshold of 150 m and 30 min). The rest of points not being part of a cluster were considered trips. Finally we used the geocoded home and work points to identify the clusters belonging to these locations. The other clusters were considered others places and we calculated the centroid of each of them. The trips, the centroids and the geocoded home and work location points were the data used to continue with the analyses. The next step was to add information from Urban Atlas 2006 and Top10 NL and to develop the indicator of the presence/absence of green spaces within a 50 m circular buffer for each location point. Those location points identified as home or work were considered non-exposed to green spaces. Finally, we resampled to one-minute assigning the mode of all the calculated indicators. This resampling was done because one-minute was the minimum meaningful physical activity information that our measurement instruments could provide.
- (2)
- CalFit-recorded accelerometer was used to get two g-forces (vertical and horizontal). After this, we converted the vertical force recorded in g-force into counts using a linear regression, and these counts into METs using the equation of Freedson et al. [62], as CalFit METs = 1.2907087 + (0.4141791 × VT g/min) [50]. We then defined time not wearing the CalFit as those periods of time of at least 40 consecutive minutes below 0.34 g in the vertical axis. These non-wear were excluded from analyses. We then classified those minutes with a MVPA intensity (≥3 METs).
- (3)
- We excluded those days that were non-study days (e.g., delivery and collection days) and classified the remainder as weekdays or weekend days. We then applied the criteria of three days with at least 10 h as valid assessment for physical activity during weekdays and, similarly, applied two days with at least 10 h during weekend days [51,52]. Those participants not fulfilling the weekdays criteria were excluded from the weekdays analyses, while those participants not fulfilling the weekend days criteria were excluded from the weekend days analyses. This led to a total sample for this study of 350 participants on weekdays and 308 on weekend days (408 participants with either weekdays or weekend days data).
Characteristics | Overall | BCN/SoT | BCN/Doe | BCN/Kau | SoT/Doe | SoT/Kau | Doe/Kau | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chi2 | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | |
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||||||
Gender | 2.94 | 0.40 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Age | - | <0.01 | 0.05 ‡ | <0.01 ¥ | <0.01 ¤ | <0.01 ¥ | 0.23 | 0.01 ¥ |
Living with children < 11 years old | 6.15 | 0.10 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Dog ownership | 38.85 | <0.01 | 0.51 | 1.00 | <0.01 ¤ | 0.49 | <0.01 ¤ | <0.01 ¤ |
Highest education | 19.97 | <0.01 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.01 ¤ | 1.00 | <0.01 ¤ | <0.01 ¤ |
Neighbourhood SES | 11.47 | 0.07 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Season | 13.07 | <0.01 | 0.09 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.03 ¤ | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Residential availability of natural outdoor environments | ||||||||
Presence/absence of green spaces at 300 m network buffer | 76.71 | <0.01 | <0.01 ‡ | <0.01 ¥ | <0.01 ¤ | <0.01 ¥ | 1.00 | <0.01 ¥ |
Weekdays | ||||||||
Contact with NOE | - | <0.01 | 0.82 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.06 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.47 | <0.01 ¥ |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | - | <0.01 | <0.01 † | 0.04 † | <0.01 † | 0.71 | 1.00 | 0.80 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | - | <0.01 | 0.99 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.50 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.78 | <0.01 ¥ |
Weekends | ||||||||
Contact with NOE | - | <0.01 | 0.26 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.83 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.76 | <0.01 ¥ |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | - | 0.01 | 0.01 † | 0.97 | 0.29 | 0.04 ¥ | 0.50 | 0.57 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | - | <0.01 | 0.96 | <0.01 ¥ | 1.00 | <0.01 ¥ | 0.93 | <0.01 ¥ |
Outcomes | Pooled p-Value | Barcelona p-Value | Stoke-on-Trent p-Value | Doetinchem p-Value | Kaunas p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Contact with NOE | <0.01 | <0.01 | 0.12 | 0.91 | 0.23 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | <0.01 | <0.01 | 0.02 | 0.48 | 0.14 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.48 | 0.20 | 0.55 |
Outcomes | Gender | Age | City | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female x residential NOE availability—Estimate (95% CI) | p-value of chi-2 test | Age above median age x residential NOE availability—Estimate (95% CI) | p-value of chi-2 test | Stoke-on-Trent x residential NOE availability—Estimate (95% CI) | Doetinchem x residential NOE availability | Kaunas x residential NOE availability—Estimate (95% CI) | p-value of chi-2 test | |
Contact with NOE | ||||||||
Weekdays | 0.81 (0.48, 1.38) | 0.30 | 0.77 (0.44, 1.33) | 0.51 | 0.51 (0.21, 1.22) | 0.71 (0.32, 1.62) | 0.58 (0.24, 1.40) | 0.38 |
Weekend days | 0.82 (0.46, 1.46) | 0.20 | 0.74 (0.40, 1.34) | 0.12 | 1.06 (0.42, 2.66) | 2.03 (0.86, 4.83) | 0.92 (0.36, 2.35) | 0.28 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||||
Weekdays | 0.93 (0.55, 1.58) | 0.15 | 0.69 (0.40, 1.19) | 0.55 | 0.83 (0.35, 1.96) | 1.12 (0.50, 2.52) | 0.86 (0.36, 2.07) | 0.89 |
Weekend days | 0.56 (0.32, 1.01) | 0.88 | 0.94 (0.52, 1.71) | 0.36 | 1.46 (0.58, 3.68) | 1.79 (0.75, 4.25) | 0.82 (0.32, 2.07) | 0.06 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||||
Weekdays | 0.57 (0.33, 0.97) | 0.42 | 0.87 (0.50, 1.51) | 0.64 | 0.45 (0.19, 1.10) | 0.56 (0.25, 1.29) | 0.52 (0.21, 1.26) | 0.03 |
Weekend days | 0.66 (0.37, 1.18) | 0.52 | 1.10 (0.60, 1.99) | 0.02 | 0.98 (0.40, 2.42) | 1.37 (0.58, 3.21) | 0.54 (0.21, 1.40) | 0.01 |
Outcomes | Total | |
---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Contact with NOE | ||
Weekdays | 2.28 (1.29, 4.04) | <0.01 |
Weekend days | 0.88 (0.48, 1.62) | 0.68 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 1.06 (0.61, 1.84) | 0.85 |
Weekend days | 0.82 (0.45, 1.49) | 0.52 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 2.42 (1.35, 4.32) | <0.01 |
Weekend days | 1.10 (0.59, 2.03) | 0.77 |
Outcomes | Total | |
---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Contact with NOE | ||
Weekdays | 2.62 (1.26, 5.44) | 0.01 |
Weekend days | 1.30 (0.60, 2.83) | 0.51 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 1.35 (0.66, 2.76) | 0.41 |
Weekend days | 1.07 (0.50, 2.30) | 0.86 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 4.19 (1.91, 9.18) | <0.01 |
Weekend days | 1.69 (0.75, 3.80) | 0.20 |
Outcomes | Total | |
---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Contact with NOE | ||
Weekdays | 1.82 (1.06, 3.12) | 0.03 |
Weekend days | 1.61 (0.90, 2.88) | 0.11 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 0.69 (0.40, 1.18) | 0.18 |
Weekend days | 0.66 (0.37, 1.17) | 0.15 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 1.62 (0.94, 2.79) | 0.08 |
Weekend days | 1.37 (0.77, 2.45) | 0.29 |
Outcomes | Total | |
---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Contact with NOE | ||
Weekdays | 2.25 (1.14, 4.42) | 0.02 |
Weekend days | 1.27 (0.62, 2.58) | 0.52 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 0.99 (0.51, 1.90) | 0.97 |
Weekend days | 0.78 (0.39, 1.57) | 0.49 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 2.41 (1.21, 4.79) | 0.01 |
Weekend days | 1.20 (0.58, 2.47) | 0.62 |
Outcomes | Total | |
---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |
Contact with NOE | ||
Weekdays | 1.39 (0.75, 2.59) | 0.30 |
Weekend days | 1.25 (0.61, 2.54) | 0.54 |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 0.75 (0.40, 1.39) | 0.36 |
Weekend days | 1.00 (0.50, 2.00) | 0.99 |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||
Weekdays | 1.94 (1.02, 3.70) | 0.04 |
Weekend days | 1.49 (0.71, 3.13) | 0.29 |
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Total | Barcelona | Stoke-on-Trent | Doetinchem | Kaunas | Intercity Comparison | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample (n) | 408 | 107 | 92 | 105 | 104 | |
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||||
Gender, females (n (%)) | 53.68% | 46.73% | 56.52% | 57.14% | 54.81% | |
Age (years: median (IQR)) | 51.00 (26.00) | 40.00 (23.00) | 44.00 (29.00) | 59.00 (16.00) | 55.00 (23.50) | * |
Living with children <11 years old, one or more (n (%)) | 19.90% | 24.30% | 25.27% | 17.14% | 13.46% | |
Dog ownership, yes (n (%)) | 34.80% | 23.36% | 34.78% | 22.86% | 58.65% | * |
Highest education, university or more (n (%)) | 56.76% | 54.21% | 47.25% | 49.52% | 75.00% | * |
Neighbourhood SES | ||||||
Low | 30.39% | 40.19% | 23.91% | 30.48% | 25.96% | |
Medium | 33.82% | 35.51% | 35.87% | 29.52% | 34.62% | |
High | 35.78% | 24.30% | 40.22% | 40.00% | 39.42% | |
Season, autumn (n (%)) | 51.12% | 36.19% | 54.35% | 58.82% | 55.77% | * |
Residential availability of natural outdoor environments | ||||||
Presence/absence of green spaces at 300 m network buffer, one or more (n (%)) | 69.12% | 41.12% | 73.91% | 96.19% | 66.35% | * |
Weekdays | ||||||
Sample (n) | 350 | 101 | 70 | 93 | 86 | |
Contact with NOE, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 41.40 (85.50) | 14.67 (39.00) | 32.23 (44.31) | 114.60 (104.33) | 40.30 (70.19) | * |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 88.80 (57.58) | 101.50 (59.50) | 74.22 (68.28) | 90.25 (53.50) | 82.67 (42.89) | * |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 7.73 (19.25) | 4.20 (9.40) | 4.60 (12.31) | 21.00 (33.80) | 8.57 (17.70) | * |
Weekends | ||||||
Sample (n) | 308 | 90 | 63 | 80 | 75 | |
Contact with NOE, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 43.75 (122.50) | 33.25 (94.50) | 16.00 (33.50) | 128.25 (119.00) | 29.00 (102.00) | * |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 78.25 (59.75) | 88.75 (54.62) | 53.00 (61.00) | 81.50 (55.50) | 74.50 (58.00) | * |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, high (minutes: median (IQR)) | 7.75 (24.12) | 6.00 (15.88) | 4.00 (10.50) | 25.50 (31.75) | 6.00 (19.25) | * |
Post-estimation measures/Model variables | Contact with NOE | Overall Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity | NOE Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weekdays | Weekends | Weekdays | Weekends | Weekdays | Weekends | |||||||
OR | OR | OR | OR | OR | OR | |||||||
(95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |||||||
Post-estimation measures | ||||||||||||
R2 of the model | 6% | 2% | 4% | 1% | 6% | 3% | ||||||
Hosmer-Lemeshow test p-value | 0.04 | 0.25 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.24 | ||||||
Model variables | ||||||||||||
Intercept | 0.87 (0.32, 2.39) | 1.29 (0.43, 3.88) | 1.47 (0.54, 3.98) | 2.85 (0.93, 8.69) | 0.79 (0.28, 2.18) | 1.40 (0.46, 4.22) | ||||||
Residential availability of NOE (one or more) | 2.41 (1.39, 4.17) | * | 0.93 (0.52, 1.67) | 1.14 (0.67, 1.95) | 0.82 (0.46, 1.45) | 2.42 (1.39, 4.22) | * | 1.12 (0.63, 2.02) | ||||
City | ||||||||||||
Stoke-on-Trent | 0.78 (0.39, 1.56) | 1.00 (0.48, 2.10) | 0.96 (0.49, 1.91) | 1.09 (0.53, 2.26) | 0.90 (0.45, 1.82) | 1.32 (0.63, 2.77) | ||||||
Doetinchem | 0.95 (0.47, 1.95) | 2.15 (1.00, 4.65) | * | 1.23 (0.60, 2.53) | 1.82 (0.85, 3.91) | 0.93 (0.45, 1.92) | 2.01 (0.92, 4.38) | |||||
Kaunas | 0.89 (0.45, 1.79) | 1.32 (0.63, 2.74) | 1.05 (0.53, 2.07) | 1.12 (0.54, 2.31) | 1.12 (0.56, 2.24) | 1.36 (0.65, 2.86) | ||||||
Neighbourhood socioeconomic status | ||||||||||||
Medium status | 0.71 (0.41, 1.22) | 0.84 (0.46, 1.53) | 0.89 (0.52, 1.54) | 1.09 (0.60, 1.98) | 1.21 (0.69, 2.11) | 0.94 (0.51, 1.71) | ||||||
High status | 0.84 (0.48, 1.46) | 1.28 (0.71, 2.33) | 0.95 (0.55, 1.66) | 1.03 (0.57, 1.88) | 1.63 (0.93, 2.86) | 1.02 (0.56, 1.85) | ||||||
Gender (female) | 0.70 (0.45, 1.09) | 0.66 (0.41, 1.07) | 0.75 (0.48, 1.16) | 0.58 (0.36, 0.93) | * | 0.50 (0.32, 0.79) | * | 0.74 (0.46, 1.19) | ||||
Age | 1.00 (0.98, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00) | * | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) | 0.97 (0.96, 0.99) | * | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00) | * | |||
Education completed | ||||||||||||
High level | 1.33 (0.84, 2.11) | 1.13 (0.69, 1.84) | 0.89 (0.56, 1.39) | 1.91 (1.17, 3.11) | * | 0.86 (0.54, 1.37) | 0.86 (0.53, 1.41) | |||||
Sampling season (autumn) | 0.76 (0.48, 1.20) | 1.47 (0.90, 2.39) | 0.68 (0.44, 1.08) | 0.89 (0.55, 1.45) | 0.83 (0.53, 1.32) | 1.11 (0.68, 1.81) | ||||||
Dog ownership (yes) | 1.35 (0.83, 2.20) | 1.27 (0.75, 2.15) | 1.82 (1.11, 2.96) | * | 1.29 (0.77, 2.17) | 1.42 (0.87, 2.31) | 1.27 (0.75, 2.14) | |||||
Living with children younger than 11 years old (yes) | 0.88 (0.49, 1.56) | 1.10 (0.60, 2.01) | 1.97 (1.10, 3.53) | * | 0.96 (0.52, 1.76) | 0.73 (0.40, 1.31) | 0.72 (0.39, 1.33) |
Outcomes | Below Median Age | Above Median Age | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |||
Contact with NOE | ||||||
Weekdays | 2.28 (1.01, 5.12) | 0.05 | (1) | 3.02 (1.32, 6.89) | 0.01 | (7) |
Weekend days | 0.47 (0.20, 1.09) | 0.08 | (2) | 2.00 (0.82, 4.91) | 0.13 | (8) |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||
Weekdays | 1.18 (0.54, 2.59) | 0.68 | (3) | 1.09 (0.51, 2.32) | 0.83 | (9) |
Weekend days | 0.71 (0.31, 1.62) | 0.42 | (4) | 0.94 (0.41, 2.13) | 0.88 | (10) |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||
Weekdays | 3.05 (1.28, 7.27) | 0.01 | (5) | 2.31 (1.07, 5.02) | 0.03 | (11) |
Weekend days | 0.72 (0.31, 1.65) | 0.44 | (6) | 2.45 (0.97, 6.19) | 0.06 | (12) |
Outcomes | Barcelona | Stoke-on-Trent | Doetinchem | Kaunas | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | p-Value | OR | p-Value | OR | p-Value | OR | p-Value | |||||
(95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | (95% CI) | |||||||||
Contact with NOE | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 5.35 (2.05, 13.95) | <0.01 | (1) | 1.34 (0.36, 4.92) | 0.66 | (7) | 1.97 (0.15, 25.74) | 0.61 | (13) | 0.77 (0.23, 2.63) | 0.68 | (19) |
Weekend days | 0.95 (0.35, 2.58) | 0.92 | (2) | 2.05 (0.50, 8.39) | 0.32 | (8) | 1.26 (0.09, 17.72) | 0.87 | (14) | 0.39 (0.12, 1.29) | 0.12 | (20) |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 1.23 (0.53, 2.90) | 0.63 | (3) | 0.67 (0.18, 2.51) | 0.55 | (9) | 1.05 (0.07, 15.19) | 0.97 | (15) | 0.60 (0.20, 1.84) | 0.37 | (21) |
Weekend days | 0.85 (0.33, 2.17) | 0.73 | (4) | 3.81 (0.88, 16.44) | 0.07 | (10) | 0.52 (0.03, 7.97) | 0.64 | (16) | 0.18 (0.05, 0.66) | 0.01 | (22) |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||||||||
Weekdays | 7.62 (2.84, 20.40) | <0.01 | (5) | 0.90 (0.20, 3.94) | 0.89 | (11) | 1.17 (0.09, 15.73) | 0.91 | (17) | 0.74 (0.23, 2.34) | 0.61 | (23) |
Weekend days | 3.71 (1.23, 11.21) | 0.02 | (6) | 2.29 (0.54, 9.67) | 0.26 | (12) | 1.36 (0.09, 19.35) | 0.82 | (18) | 0.19 (0.05, 0.68) | 0.01 | (24) |
Outcomes | Males | Females | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | Estimate (95% CI) | p-Value | |||
Contact with NOE | ||||||
Weekdays | 1.83 (0.84, 3.97) | 0.13 | (1) | 3.70 (1.55, 8.79) | <0.01 | (7) |
Weekend days | 0.69 (0.29, 1.63) | 0.40 | (2) | 1.36 (0.58, 3.17) | 0.48 | (8) |
Overall moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||
Weekdays | 0.90 (0.41, 1.97) | 0.79 | (3) | 1.59 (0.72, 3.49) | 0.25 | (9) |
Weekend days | 0.83 (0.35, 1.96) | 0.68 | (4) | 0.71 (0.31, 1.63) | 0.42 | (10) |
NOE moderate-to-vigorous physical activity | ||||||
Weekdays | 2.32 (1.06, 5.06) | 0.04 | (5) | 2.63 (1.11, 6.24) | 0.03 | (11) |
Weekend days | 2.10 (0.89, 4.98) | 0.09 | (6) | 0.55 (0.22, 1.36) | 0.19 | (12) |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Triguero-Mas, M.; Donaire-Gonzalez, D.; Seto, E.; Valentín, A.; Smith, G.; Martínez, D.; Carrasco-Turigas, G.; Masterson, D.; Van den Berg, M.; Ambròs, A.; et al. Living Close to Natural Outdoor Environments in Four European Cities: Adults’ Contact with the Environments and Physical Activity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1162. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101162
Triguero-Mas M, Donaire-Gonzalez D, Seto E, Valentín A, Smith G, Martínez D, Carrasco-Turigas G, Masterson D, Van den Berg M, Ambròs A, et al. Living Close to Natural Outdoor Environments in Four European Cities: Adults’ Contact with the Environments and Physical Activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(10):1162. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101162
Chicago/Turabian StyleTriguero-Mas, Margarita, David Donaire-Gonzalez, Edmund Seto, Antònia Valentín, Graham Smith, David Martínez, Glòria Carrasco-Turigas, Daniel Masterson, Magdalena Van den Berg, Albert Ambròs, and et al. 2017. "Living Close to Natural Outdoor Environments in Four European Cities: Adults’ Contact with the Environments and Physical Activity" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 10: 1162. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101162