Determinants of Food Safety Level in Fruit and Vegetable Wholesalers’ Supply Chain: Evidence from Spain and France
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background: Agri-Food Safety in Long Supply Chains
3. Hypotheses of Analysis
4. Methodology
4.1. Data
4.2. Variables and Model Description
- CUST: The degree of customer requirements measured by a 1–5 Likert scale where 1 is low customer demand and 5 is maximum requirement. More specifically, this variable represents the perception of wholesalers regarding the pressure exerted on them by their main customers in terms of food quality and safety [15,58]. The intensity of this variable depends on a vast range of factors, such as the importance that customers place on certification, in-house safety control (without third parties), the level of complaints, and even the degree of trust between wholesalers and customers [42].
- DIST: Represents the type of customer or distributor. It is the percentage of sales carried out through big retailers over total sales. According to [58], there is a direct relationship between a wholesaler’s level of certification and the fact that their main customer is a big retailer.
- TYPE: Indicates the type of supplier, that is, whether the wholesaler is primarily an importer (of F&V from third countries to the EU) or is mainly supplied by their own production, cooperatives, or European farmers [56]. This is a dummy variable that takes a value of 1 when the majority of the wholesaler’s produce comes from importation, and 0 in all other cases.
- AGE: The number of years that the wholesaler has been operating as an indicator of experience and years in the business.
- TURN: The annual turnover of the wholesaler (in thousands of euros). It is an indicator of company size. In the literature, the size of a company produces varied results in relation to efforts made to implement food safety. Some studies [67,68] indicate that the largest companies are those which make the greatest efforts in this regard, while others [58] suggest the opposite.
- EMP: The number of employees, which is also indicative of the size of the wholesaler.
- DIV: The degree of specialization, measured by the number of products the wholesaler deals in. The diversification of a product portfolio might prevent a company from receiving certification.
5. Results
6. Discussions
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Consumer Direct Purchase 1 | Spain | France | Germany |
---|---|---|---|
Super-Hyper-Discount | 43% (20%) | 73% (35%) | 86% (25%) |
Traditional Shops | 40% (95%) | 20% (90%) | 12% (92%) |
Others (Self-consumption, street markets) | 17% (63%) | 7% (83%) | 2% (90%) |
Total | 100% (57%) | 100% (49%) | 100% (34%) |
PROM | DESV | MAX | MIN | CERT | CUST | DIST | TYPE | TURN | AGE | EMP | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CERT | 42.30 | 34.34 | 100.00 | 0.00 | 1 | ||||||
CUST | 2.43 | 1.45 | 5.00 | 1.00 | 0.160 | 1 | |||||
DIST | 28.89 | 27.42 | 90.00 | 0.00 | −0.102 | 0.181 | 1 | ||||
TYPE | 0.26 | 0.44 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.210 | 0.426 | 0.215 | 1 | |||
TURN | 40,738 | 83,498 | 755,851 | 180.00 | 0.017 | 0.307 | 0.119 | 0.170 | 1 | ||
AGE | 29.05 | 17.43 | 51.00 | 3.00 | −0.194 | 0.074 | 0.061 | 0.043 | 0.372 | 1 | |
EMP | 25.38 | 42.19 | 301.00 | 1.00 | −0.061 | 0.130 | 0.049 | −0.029 | 0.686 | 0.395 | 1 |
DIV | 8.46 | 6.85 | 17.00 | 1.00 | 0.102 | 0.098 | 0.191 | 0.038 | 0.321 | 0.033 | 0.271 |
Variable | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Constant | −0.373 | −0.424 | −0.321 |
CUST (Hyp. 1) | 0.465 ** | 0.457 ** | 0.387 ** |
DIST (Hyp. 2) | 0.268 * | 0.305 * | |
TYPE (Hyp. 4) | −0.145 | −0.237 | |
DIST × CUST (Hyp. 3) | 0.109 * | ||
TYPE × CUST (Hyp. 5) | 0.018 | ||
AGE | −0.022 ** | −0.030 ** | −0.012 * |
TURN | 0.060 | 0.063 | 0.018 |
EMP | 0.024 | 0.015 | 0.005 |
DIV | 0.002 | −0.008 | −0.011 |
R2 | 0.338 | 0.453 | 0.618 |
Variation R2 | 0.115 | 0.165 | 0.115 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.295 | 0.434 | 0.455 |
D-W | 1.919 | 1.615 | 1.558 |
χ2 Farrar-Glauber | 11,721 | 16,009 | 19,565 |
White Test | 6382 | 9482 | 7410 |
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Hernández-Rubio, J.; Pérez-Mesa, J.C.; Piedra-Muñoz, L.; Galdeano-Gómez, E. Determinants of Food Safety Level in Fruit and Vegetable Wholesalers’ Supply Chain: Evidence from Spain and France. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102246
Hernández-Rubio J, Pérez-Mesa JC, Piedra-Muñoz L, Galdeano-Gómez E. Determinants of Food Safety Level in Fruit and Vegetable Wholesalers’ Supply Chain: Evidence from Spain and France. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(10):2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102246
Chicago/Turabian StyleHernández-Rubio, Jesús, Juan C. Pérez-Mesa, Laura Piedra-Muñoz, and Emilio Galdeano-Gómez. 2018. "Determinants of Food Safety Level in Fruit and Vegetable Wholesalers’ Supply Chain: Evidence from Spain and France" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 10: 2246. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102246