Long Working Hours and Job Quality in Europe: Gender and Welfare State Differences
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Job Quality
1.2. Long Working Hours
1.3. Welfare State Regimes
2. Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Variables
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. General Patterns
4.2. LWH and Poor Job Quality among Women from Eastern Europe
4.3. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Continental | Anglo-Saxon | Eastern European | Southern European | Nordic | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | |
N = 4887 | N = 3298 | N = 1718 | N = 1003 | N = 2267 | N = 2042 | N = 3189 | N = 1963 | N = 514 | N = 481 | |
Paid working hours (%) | ||||||||||
30–40 h | 78.3 c | 87.8 | 63.6 c | 80.6 | 65.4 c | 74.5 | 75.4 b | 79.9 | 79.6 | 84.0 |
41–50 h | 18.4 | 11.0 | 26.3 | 16.8 | 26.2 | 21.2 | 20.7 | 16.8 | 17.8 | 14.1 |
51–60 h | 3.3 | 1.2 | 10.1 | 2.6 | 8.4 | 4.4 | 3.9 | 3.3 | 2.7 | 1.9 |
Occupational category (%) | ||||||||||
Upper | 20.8 c | 23.1 | 36.7 c | 38.7 | 14.3 c | 19.8 | 11.7 c | 18.2 | 23.5 c | 33.4 |
Middle | 33.8 | 64.9 | 28.8 | 50.8 | 26.1 | 55.1 | 34.8 | 61.9 | 36.8 | 54.7 |
Lower | 45.4 | 12.0 | 34.4 | 10.4 | 59.6 | 25.1 | 53.5 | 19.8 | 39.7 | 11.9 |
Intrinsic job quality (mean; SD) | ||||||||||
Time pressure | 4.0 (1.7) c | 3.7 (1.8) | 3.8 (1.8) | 3.8 (1.9) | 3.5 (1.8) c | 3.3 (1.9) | 3.7 (1.8) c | 3.3 (1.8) | 3.8 (1.5) | 4.0 (1.7) |
Physical demands | 3.3 (1.5) | 3.2 (1.5) | 3.2 (1.5) | 2.8 (1.3) | 3.4 (1.6) c | 3.0 (1.5) | 3.7 (1.6) | 3.3 (1.4) | 3.2 (1.4) | 3.1 (1.4) |
Skill discretion | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.3) c | 0.6 (0.3) | 0.9 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) |
Autonomy | 0.6 (0.4) a | 0.7 (0.3) | 0.7 (0.4) a | 0.7 (0.4) | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.4) | 0.8 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.3) |
Participation | 3.0 (1.1) b | 2.9 (1:1) | 3.3 (1.3) | 3.3 (1.1) | 3.0 (1.1) b | 2.9 (1.1) | 2.8 (1.2) b | 2.7 (1.2) | 3.5 (1.0) | 3.5 (0.9) |
Support | 3.6 (1.0) | 3.7 (1.0) | 4.1 (0.9) a | 4.2 (0.8) | 3.9 (0.9) | 3.8 (1.0) | 3.8 (1.0) | 3.8 (1.0) | 4.0 (0.8) | 4.0 (0.9) |
Prospects | ||||||||||
Non-permanent contract (%) | 11.1 c | 11.9 | 15.1 b | 12.9 | 15.0 b | 16.3 | 10.7 c | 14.6 | 9.6 | 10.7 |
Employer-funded training (mean; SD) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.5 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.4) | 0.6 (0.4) |
Rewards (%) | 2.6 (0.8) c | 2.7 (0.8) | 2.5 (0.8) c | 2.4 (0.8) | 2.8 (0.8) a | 2.9 (0.8) | 2.8 (0.8) a | 2.9 (0.7) | 2.5 (0.7) | 2.5 (0.7) |
Working time quality | ||||||||||
Changing schedules | 27.6 | 25.9 | 23.8 c | 17.1 | 27.3 c | 19.3 | 21.0 b | 16.9 | 12.7 | 15.2 |
Work-life conflict | 18.8 | 19.0 | 17.1 c | 11.2 | 19.0 b | 15.5 | 26.2 | 24.8 | 12.0 | 11.3 |
Age (mean; SD) | 41.3 (10.9) c | 40.1 (10.9) | 39.7 (11.7) a | 38.5 (11.6) | 39.3 (11.1) | 39.7(10.4) | 40.5 (10.7) a | 39.8 (10.2) | 42.4 (10.9) | 43.5 (11.2) |
Continental | Anglo-Saxon | Eastern European | Southern European | Nordic | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 4887 | N = 1718 | N = 2267 | N = 3189 | N = 514 | |||||||||||
% | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | |
Intrinsic job quality | |||||||||||||||
High time pressure | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 37.9 | 1 f | 42.5 | 1 d | 57.2 | 1 f | 48.2 | 1 f | 46.2 | 1 e | |||||
41–50 h | 31.6 | 0.7 | 0.59–0.82 c | 42.5 | 1.06 | 0.85–1.35 | 38.6 | 0.46 | 0.38–0.56 c | 31.9 | 0.51 | 0.43–0.63 c | 27 | 0.38 | 0.22–0.65 c |
51–60 h | 27.5 | 0.53 | 0.36–0.76 b | 28.4 | 0.56 | 0.37–0.75 b | 33.3 | 0.41 | 0.29–0.56 c | 27.3 | 0.37 | 0.25–0.59 c | 35.7 | 0.44 | 0.14–1.44 |
High physical demands | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 51.2 | 1 | 57 | 1 | 50.1 | 1 d | 52.3 | 1 | 57.4 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 41.5 | 0.86 | 0.72–1.02 | 44.4 | 0.48 | 0.37–0.63 c | 52.4 | 1.14 | 0.92–1.41 | 54.3 | 1.17 | 0.96–1.42 | 42.7 | 0.79 | 0.46–1.36 |
51–60 h | 43.5 | 1.01 | 0.70–1.47 | 59.8 | 1.7 | 1.17–2.46 b | 62.2 | 1.43 | 1.01–2.03 a | 50 | 1.06 | 0.64–1.64 | 30.8 | 0.82 | 0.22–3.05 |
Low skill discretion | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 31.6 | 1 f | 46.1 | 1 | 41 | 1 e | 37.9 | 1 e | 42.2 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 24.2 | 0.82 | 0.69–0.98 a | 43.2 | 0.9 | 0.71–1.15 | 36.9 | 0.88 | 0.66–0.99 a | 47.5 | 1.53 | 1.27–1.84 c | 28.1 | 0.59 | 0.35–1.01 |
51–60 h | 13.7 | 0.4 | 0.25–0.64 c | 32 | 0.7 | 0.49–1.01 | 34.4 | 0.68 | 0.49–0.95 a | 27.3 | 0.72 | 0.46–1.11 | 28.6 | 0.77 | 0.22–2.71 |
Low autonomy | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 45.4 | 1 | 50.8 | 1 | 51.3 | 1 | 45.9 | 1 | 38.9 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 39 | 1.02 | 0.85–1.22 | 49.4 | 1.03 | 0.80–1.32 | 48.7 | 0.88 | 0.71–1.10 | 42 | 0.83 | 0.68–1.02 | 37.1 | 1.2 | 0.71–2.02 |
51–60 h | 36.6 | 0.81 | 0.55–1.18 | 41.8 | 1.06 | 0.74–1.52 | 47.5 | 0.77 | 0.55–1.09 | 41.2 | 0.95 | 0.62–1.46 | 28.6 | 1.13 | 0.31–4.16 |
Low participation | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 43.4 | 1 f | 49.1 | 1 d | 45 | 1 e | 50.1 | 1 | 53.1 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 29 | 0.64 | 0.54–0.76 c | 39.8 | 0.74 | 0.56–0.97 a | 39.9 | 0.78 | 0.64–0.96 a | 52.1 | 1.12 | 0.93–1.34 | 44.2 | 0.98 | 0.57–1.68 |
51–60 h | 34.8 | 0.82 | 0.58–1.17 | 36.1 | 0.79 | 0.53–1.17 | 41.5 | 0.75 | 0.54–1.03 | 40 | 0.82 | 0.55–1.23 | 41.7 | 1.2 | 0.35–4.12 |
Low support | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 49.6 | 1 | 31.8 | 1 | 39.8 | 1 | 40.3 | 1 f | 33.9 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 49.8 | 1.04 | 0.89–1.21 | 28.4 | 0.89 | 0.69–1.54 | 42.9 | 1.13 | 0.93–1.37 | 45.6 | 1.24 | 1.02–1.48 a | 35.2 | 1.01 | 0.61–1.69 |
51–60 h | 41.3 | 0.74 | 0.53–1.02 | 29.1 | 0.96 | 0.66–1.39 | 44.9 | 1.19 | 0.87–1.63 | 50 | 1.71 | 1.17--2.49 b | 46.2 | 1.39 | 0.45–4.30 |
Prospects | |||||||||||||||
Non-permanent contract | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 10.1 | 1 | 14.6 | 1 | 14 | 1 | 18.5 | 1 f | 9 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 9.7 | 1.04 | 0.81–1.34 | 13.5 | 0.89 | 0.64–1.24 | 17.7 | 1.33 | 1.03–1.73 a | 27.6 | 1.51 | 1.22–1.86 c | 12.4 | 1.22 | 0.56–2.65 |
51–60 h | 10.6 | 1.25 | 0.74–2.12 | 21.9 | 1.73 | 1.14–2.64 a | 14.4 | 0.98 | 0.64–1.53 | 27.3 | 1.45 | 0.93–2.27 | 14.3 | 1.89 | 0.36–9.50 |
Low employer-funded training | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 50.3 | 1 e | 37.5 | 1 | 51.2 | 1 | 61.4 | 1 | 30.9 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 41.6 | 0.8 | 0.69–0.94 b | 33.3 | 0.79 | 0.62–1.00 | 55.7 | 1.2 | 0.98–1.46 | 58 | 0.9 | 0.76–1.09 | 30.7 | 1.26 | 0.75–2.12 |
51–60 h | 40.4 | 0.71 | 0.51–1.00 a | 30.2 | 0.77 | 0.54–1.11 | 54.3 | 1 | 0.73–1.37 | 53.7 | 0.92 | 0.62–1.35 | 15.4 | 0.55 | 0.13–2.43 |
Rewards | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 40.6 | 1 | 46.5 | 1 e | 42.9 | 1 | 46.2 | 1 | 45.2 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 42.3 | 0.99 | 0.85–1.15 | 58.3 | 1.55 | 1.22–1.95 c | 41.7 | 0.97 | 0.80–1.19 | 40.1 | 0.76 | 0.63–0.91 b | 56.2 | 1.25 | 0.77–2.02 |
51–60 h | 48.4 | 1.22 | 0.88–1.69 | 55.6 | 1.24 | 0.88–1.75 | 40.6 | 0.95 | 0.69–1.31 | 52.5 | 1.17 | 0.80–1.71 | 61.5 | 1.49 | 0.47–4.70 |
Working-time quality | |||||||||||||||
Changing schedules | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 26.1 | 1 f | 21.2 | 1 f | 22.6 | 1 f | 19.1 | 1 f | 14.1 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 33.8 | 1.65 | 1.40–1.97 c | 25.9 | 1.42 | 1.06–1.82 a | 33.4 | 1.72 | 1.39–2.13 c | 25.9 | 1.41 | 1.15–1.74 b | 5.7 | 0.49 | 0.19–1.23 |
51–60 h | 29.8 | 1.46 | 1.02–2.08 a | 34.7 | 2.48 | 1.71–3.59 c | 45.4 | 2.79 | 2.03–3.85 c | 30 | 1.78 | 1.18–2.69 b | 15.4 | 1.91 | 0.39–9.26 |
Work-life conflict | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 14.3 | 1 f | 12.8 | 1 f | 13.7 | 1 f | 20.6 | 1 f | 10.6 | 1 e | |||||
41–50 h | 31 | 3 | 2.52–3.57 c | 18.1 | 1.72 | 1.24–2.34 b | 25.5 | 2.15 | 1.69–2.74 c | 40.9 | 2.7 | 2.23–3.26 c | 15.7 | 1.74 | 0.89–3.43 |
51–60 h | 57.8 | 9.11 | 6.59–12.79 c | 45 | 6.75 | 4.67–9.76 c | 40.7 | 4.18 | 2.99–5.85 c | 57.9 | 5.87 | 3.99–8.64 c | 30.8 | 6.05 | 1.71–21.33 b |
Continental | Anglo-Saxon | Eastern European | Southern European | Nordic | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 3298 | N = 1003 | N = 2042 | N = 1963 | N = 481 | |||||||||||
% | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | % | aOR | 95%CI | |
Intrinsic job quality | |||||||||||||||
High time pressure | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 46.5 | 1 f | 42.1 | 1 | 59.2 | 1 f | 55.9 | 1 f | 39.9 | 1 d | |||||
41–50 h | 32.2 | 0.52 | 0.40–0.67 c | 35.9 | 0.81 | 0.56–1.15 | 44.4 | 0.5 | 0.41–0.64 c | 49.3 | 0.76 | 0.40–0.98 a | 26.2 | 0.55 | 0.29–1.02 |
51–60 h | 36.1 | 0.59 | 0.29–1.20 | 25 | 0.47 | 0.18–1.22 | 44.7 | 0.52 | 0.34–0.83 b | 30.4 | 0.33 | 0.18–0.57 c | 12.5 | 0.12 | 0.01–1.34 |
High physical demands | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 48.8 | 1 e | 55.8 | 1 | 49.7 | 1 f | 51.7 | 1 | 55.6 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 55.3 | 1.35 | 1.06–1.72 b | 53.6 | 0.93 | 0.65–1.31 | 63.6 | 1.97 | 1.55–2.50 c | 48.6 | 0.86 | 0.66–1.12 | 40.3 | 0.84 | 0.47–1.51 |
51–60 h | 61.1 | 1.54 | 0.76–3.15 | 45.8 | 0.76 | 0.33–1.71 | 70.6 | 2.49 | 1.52–4.09 c | 69.6 | 1.88 | 1.01–3.50 a | 25 | 0.27 | 0.05–1.57 |
Low skill discretion | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 34.6 | 1:00 AM | 49.8 | 1 f | 41.1 | 1:00 AM | 48.7 | 1 | 46.7 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 23.8 | 0.67 | 0.51–0.89 b | 33.8 | 0.53 | 0.36–0.79 b | 43 | 1.07 | 0.86–1.37 | 55.4 | 1.33 | 1.02–1.75 a | 36.1 | 1.09 | 0.61–1.98 |
51–60 h | 33.3 | 1.01 | 0.41–2.08 | 16.7 | 0.25 | 0.08–0.77 a | 57 | 1.8 | 1.16–2.87 a | 38.2 | 0.51 | 0.28–0.94 a | 37.5 | 0.91 | 0.20–4.18 |
Low autonomy | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 42.6 | 1 | 49.8 | 1 e | 48.7 | 1 e | 42.5 | 1 | 39.9 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 30.7 | 0.67 | 0.50–0.91 a | 30.7 | 0.47 | 0.33–0.69 c | 54.3 | 1.27 | 0.99–1.64 | 46 | 1.03 | 0.77–1.38 | 44.3 | 1.57 | 0.89–2.79 |
51–60 h | 27.6 | 0.42 | 0.17–1.05 | 43.5 | 0.86 | 0.37–2.00 | 63.5 | 1.62 | 1.10–3.02 a | 51.2 | 1.43 | 0.74–2.76 | 25 | 0.77 | 0.17–3.57 |
Low participation | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 44.3 | 1 | 49.8 | 1 f | 46 | 1 | 49.8 | 1 | 52.8 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 38.8 | 0.87 | 0.70–1.15 | 28.1 | 0.45 | 0.28–0.64 c | 45.1 | 0.94 | 0.73–1.17 | 46.8 | 0.89 | 0.67–1.23 | 41.5 | 0.87 | 0.47–1.60 |
51–60 h | 36.1 | 0.6 | 0.30–1.29 | 45.8 | 1.12 | 0.48–2.48 | 62.4 | 1.87 | 1.16–3.00 a | 38.2 | 0.51 | 0.27–0.96 a | 37.5 | 0.59 | 0.12–2.84 |
Low support | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 46.7 | 1 | 27.7 | 1 | 38.3 | 1 f | 40.3 | 1 | 32.7 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 45.4 | 0.96 | 0.75–1.23 | 20.1 | 0.72 | 0.47–1.10 | 48.1 | 1.46 | 1.17–1.82 c | 38.8 | 0.97 | 0.74–1.87 | 35.5 | 1.25 | 0.68–2.28 |
51–60 h | 60 | 1.55 | 0.74–3.27 | 27.3 | 1.23 | 0.48–3.13 | 52.4 | 1.74 | 1.11–2.72 a | 31.4 | 0.67 | 0.36–1.26 | 37.5 | 1.75 | 0.42–7.26 |
Prospects | |||||||||||||||
Non-permanent contract | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 11.6 | 1 e | 12.5 | 1 | 16 | 1 d | 22.1 | 1 f | 10.4 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 13.4 | 1.37 | 0.96–1.95 | 14.4 | 1.29 | 0.78–2.12 | 19.3 | 1.09 | 0.81–1.45 | 35.5 | 1.57 | 1.18–2.08 c | 12.9 | 1.29 | 0.59–2.82 |
51–60 h | 25 | 2.16 | 0.93–5.00 | 16.7 | 1.49 | 0.49–4.53 | 29.4 | 2.05 | 1.23–3.42 b | 53.6 | 3.88 | 2.16–7.00 c | 12.5 | 2.04 | 0.39–10.81 |
Low employer-funded training | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 46.7 | 1 | 36 | 1 | 51.1 | 1 | 64 | 1 | 29.6 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 46.9 | 1.06 | 0.83–1.35 | 28.8 | 0.8 | 0.54–1.13 | 51.8 | 1 | 0.80–1.25 | 60.1 | 0.81 | 0.62–1.06 | 25.8 | 1.08 | 0.57–2.04 |
51–60 h | 34.3 | 0.52 | 0.25–1.18 | 62.5 | 3.3 | 1.42–7.62 b | 64 | 1.63 | 1.03–2.59 a | 60 | 0.73 | 0.41–1.32 | 25 | 1.17 | 0.25–5.52 |
Rewards | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 50.3 | 1 | 40.1 | 1 | 41.1 | 1 e | 37.6 | 1 | 40.4 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 47.2 | 0.88 | 0.70–1.12 | 49 | 1.4 | 1.02–2.06 a | 35.4 | 0.8 | 0.63–1.01 | 46.3 | 1.43 | 1.10–1.85 a | 54.1 | 1.44 | 0.81–2.55 |
51–60 h | 44.4 | 0.85 | 0.43–1.69 | 41.7 | 1 | 0.47–2.48 | 29.4 | 0.65 | 0.40–1.05 | 35.7 | 0.96 | 0.54–1.70 | 62.5 | 2.37 | 0.55–10.22 |
Working-time quality | |||||||||||||||
Changing schedules | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 25.5 | 1 | 14.6 | 1 f | 16.7 | 1 f | 16.2 | 1 | 15.8 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 29.4 | 1.23 | 0.95–1.59 | 26.8 | 2.43 | 1.59–3.71 c | 27.5 | 1.78 | 1.38–2.30 c | 19.4 | 1.17 | 0.84–1.63 | 9.8 | 0.65 | 0.27–1.58 |
51–60 h | 22.2 | 0.69 | 0.29–1.61 | 33.3 | 3.28 | 1.32–8.15 b | 23.5 | 1.47 | 0.88–2.47 | 21.4 | 1.7 | 0.88–3.29 | 12.5 | 1.04 | 0.15–6.97 |
Work-life conflict | |||||||||||||||
30–40 h | 16.9 | 1 f | 8.1 | 1 f | 11.9 | 1 f | 22.2 | 1 f | 10.4 | 1 | |||||
41–50 h | 33.1 | 2.76 | 2.13–3.57 c | 23.4 | 3.6 | 2.28–5.71 c | 21.6 | 2.08 | 1.57–2.76 c | 33.8 | 1.98 | 1.46–2.55 c | 14.5 | 1.76 | 0.77–4.05 |
51–60 h | 45.7 | 4.02 | 2.02–8.08 c | 29.2 | 4.41 | 1.72–11.26 b | 48.2 | 6.98 | 4.41–11.07 c | 40 | 2.82 | 1.61–4.92 b | 25 | 4.14 | 0.86–19.95 |
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Artazcoz, L.; Cortès-Franch, I.; Escribà-Agüir, V.; López, M.; Benavides, F.G. Long Working Hours and Job Quality in Europe: Gender and Welfare State Differences. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112592
Artazcoz L, Cortès-Franch I, Escribà-Agüir V, López M, Benavides FG. Long Working Hours and Job Quality in Europe: Gender and Welfare State Differences. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(11):2592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112592
Chicago/Turabian StyleArtazcoz, Lucía, Imma Cortès-Franch, Vicenta Escribà-Agüir, María López, and Fernando G. Benavides. 2018. "Long Working Hours and Job Quality in Europe: Gender and Welfare State Differences" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 11: 2592. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112592