On the Development of Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines: Principles and Framework
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Rationale for Developing Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines
1.2. Objective
2. Proposed Framework for Setting Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines
2.1. Terms and Conditions for Developing the Guidelines
- (1)
- The guidelines should refer to established exposure guidelines that reduce health risks.
- (2)
- The guidelines should acknowledge that ventilation is a subordinate strategy for improving IAQ after the adoption of the due air pollution source control measures.
- (3)
- The guidelines should define the “base ventilation rate” that must always be guaranteed to remove emissions from humans (human bio-effluents) and, ultimately, the criteria to select the specific “health-based ventilation rate” for a specific building.
2.1.1. Health-Based Exposure Guidelines and Exposure Limits
2.1.2. Ventilation as a Subordinate Strategy for Controlling IAQ
2.1.3. Definition of Base Ventilation Rate and Decision Diagram to Select the Health-Based Ventilation Rate
2.2. Determination of the Base Ventilation Rate
2.2.1. The Evidence on the Effects of Human Bioeffluents
2.2.2. Modelling the Levels of CO2 from Humans
2.2.3. Modelling Moisture Levels Produced by Humans
- Ambient conditions with temperature of −10 °C and a relative humidity of 100%, that is, relatively dry but cold air that could potentially increase the risk of high humidity levels near the inner surfaces of the building envelope;
- Ambient conditions with temperature of +10 °C and a relative humidity of 75% and 85%, representing conditions that can favour the increased risk of house dust mites and mould growth.
2.3. Decision Diagram for Selecting the Health-Based Ventilation Rate for a Specific Building
2.3.1. Outdoor Air
2.3.2. Building
2.3.3. Health-Based Ventilation Requirements
2.3.4. Ventilation System
3. Benefits from Implementation of the Proposed Framework
- Scenario 1 represents a building stock with simply optimized ventilation (i.e., by changing ventilation only) to minimize the burden of disease.
- Scenarios 2 and 3 represent two alternative ways of improving indoor air quality in buildings. In Scenario 2 it is achieved by enhanced filtration of the outdoor air supplied, to remove ambient pollutants. In Scenario 3 it is attained by source control indoors together with application of a base ventilation rate.
4. Discussion
5. Implementation, Regulations, Research Needs on the Proposed Framework
- A common regulation of ventilation in Europe shall be developed that takes into account local climate and specific aspects of local culture.
- A harmonized framework of construction and consumer products emissions labelling criteria shall be developed.
- Building regulations that require products with certified emissions already at the building design stage shall be developed.
- Adequate regulations shall be developed for indoor air quality maintenance, inspection and operation.
- Criteria and requirements for energy efficient buildings shall be developed in which the requirements for health-based ventilation are decoupled from the requirements placed upon systems for maintaining thermal comfort (heating/cooling).
- European guidance shall be developed on the proper design, construction, maintenance and inspection of ventilation systems.
- Harmonization framework for indoor air monitoring which was recently developed by the European Commission (DG JRC and DG SANCO) in the context of the PILOT INDOOR AIR MONIT project, particularly useful in the context of auditing.
- Legislative instruments, such as Ecolabel criteria for various products, Ecodesign Directive Lot 6 on ventilation, CEN/TC 350/WG 5 prEN 16309 “Sustainability of construction works” [67].
- Population-representative measurement campaigns on indoor exposures in all major types of buildings including quantification of ventilation rates and analysis of the health impact of indoor and outdoor sources.
- Investigations that identify the health endpoints that are relevant to indoor exposures particularly with respect to examination of chronic health effects and subpopulations with special needs (vulnerable groups such as children, elderly or people with allergies or other hypersensitivities).
6. Conclusions
- Air quality shall comply with WHO Air Quality Guidelines.
- Source control should be the primary strategy for managing indoor air exposures.
- Ventilation is a supplementary strategy for improving indoor air quality in buildings.
- The health-based ventilation rate for a specific building should be determined according to the decision diagram proposed by the HealthVent project.
- The health-based ventilation rate must not be lower than the base ventilation rate.
- The base ventilation rate is proposed to be set at 4 L/s per person.
- Ventilation systems and health-based ventilation standards shall comply with the health-based ventilation guidelines’ framework.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pollutant | Air Quality Guidelines | Specific Indoor Air Quality Guidelines | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
AQ WHO (2000) | AQ WHO (2006) | EU-INDEX (2005) | IAQ WHO (2010) | |
CO (mg/m3) | 100 (15 min) | 100 (15 min) | 100 (15 min) | |
60 (30 min) | 60 (30 min) | 60 (30 min) | ||
30 (1 h) | 30 (1 h) | 30 (1 h) | ||
10 (8 h) | 10 (8 h) | 10 (8 h) | ||
7 (24 h) | ||||
NO2 (μg/m3) | 200 (1 h) | 200 (1 h) | 200 (1 h) | 200 (1 h) |
40 (1 y) | 40 (1 y) | 40 (1 w) | 40 (1 y) | |
SO2 (μg/m3) | 500 (10 min) | 500 (10 min) | ||
125 (24 h) | 20 (24 h) | |||
PM10 (μg/m3) | 50 (24 h) | |||
20 (1 y) | ||||
PM2.5 (μg/m3) | 25 (24 h) | |||
10 (1 y) | ||||
OZONE (μg/m3) | 100 (8 h) | |||
RADON (Bq/m3) | No safe level Refer. level: 100 | |||
Benzene (μg/m3) | UR 6 × 10−6 | No safe level-Not more than outdoor level | No safe level | |
Tetrachloroethylene (μg/m3) | 250 (1 y) 8000 (30 m) | 250 (1 y) | ||
Toluene (μg/m3) | 260 (1 w) 1000 (30 m) | 300 (long-term) | ||
Styrene (μg/m3) | 260 (1 w) 70 (30 m) | 250 (long-term) | ||
Xylenes (μg/m3) | 200 (long-term) | |||
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) | 100 (30 min) | 30 (30 min) | 100 (30 min) | |
Naphthalene (μg/m3) | 10 (1 y) |
Building Type (Occupation Density) | Ventilation Rate (L/s per per.) | CO2,max ppm | Time to Reach 98% of CO2,max | Time to 1000 ppm (h:mm) | Typical Occupation Periods | Average CO2 ppm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
School (2 m2/per.) | 4 | 1692 | 1:31 | 0:15 | 5 × 1.5 h classes (20 min. breaks + 1.5 h lunch break) | 1456 |
6 | 1261 | 0:58 | 0:19 | 1145 | ||
8 | 1046 | 0:42 | 0:33 | 977 | ||
Office (10 m2/per.) | 4 | 1692 | 7:36 | 1:18 | 4 h + 4 h (1.5 h lunch break) | 1237 |
6 | 1261 | 4:54 | 1:39 | 1025 | ||
8 | 1046 | 3:34 | 2:45 | 901 | ||
Residential (25 m2/per.) | 4 | 1692 | 19:01 | 3:15 | 12 h (continuous) | 1182 |
6 | 1261 | 12:15 | 4:08 | 1016 | ||
8 | 1046 | 8:55 | 6:53 | 904 |
Hypothetical Scenarios for Assessing Impacts on Burden of Disease Based on the Implementation of the Different Indoor Exposure Mitigation Approaches | |
---|---|
Baseline scenario | Existing building stock and existing distribution of mechanical ventilation by country |
Scenario 1 | Dilution of indoor emissions by health-based optimisation of national average ventilation rates |
Scenario 2 | Filtration of particulate matter (PM2.5) in the outdoor air supply by 50% |
Scenario 3 | Source control (90% reduction in second-hand smoke (SHS), carbon monoxide (CO) and radon (Rn); 50% reduction of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and dampness; 25% reduction of indoor generated PM2.5) (4 L/s per person) 1 |
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Carrer, P.; De Oliveira Fernandes, E.; Santos, H.; Hänninen, O.; Kephalopoulos, S.; Wargocki, P. On the Development of Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines: Principles and Framework. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1360. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071360
Carrer P, De Oliveira Fernandes E, Santos H, Hänninen O, Kephalopoulos S, Wargocki P. On the Development of Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines: Principles and Framework. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(7):1360. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071360
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarrer, Paolo, Eduardo De Oliveira Fernandes, Hugo Santos, Otto Hänninen, Stylianos Kephalopoulos, and Pawel Wargocki. 2018. "On the Development of Health-Based Ventilation Guidelines: Principles and Framework" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 7: 1360. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071360