Food Insecurity and Mental Health among Females in High-Income Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Identifying Relevant Studies
2.2. Study Selection
2.3. Charting the Data
2.4. Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results
3. Results
3.1. Overview of Included Articles
3.2. Food Insecurity Measures
3.3. Mental Health Measures
3.4. Overview of Findings on Food Insecurity and Mental Health
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Reference | Sample (Participants (Age), Setting, Race/Ethnicity, Data Source) | Study Design (Sample Size) | Purpose | Food Security Measure | Mental Health Measure | Mental Health States/Conditions | Covariates Considered | Analytic Approach and Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) | ||||||||
Longitudinal analyses | ||||||||
Bronte-Tinkew et al. 2007 [53] | Mothers (mean age, 27.5 years), US, race/ethnicity not specified Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) | Longitudinal (8693) | Examine association between food insecurity and child health, and examine parental depression and behaviors as mediators | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 12-item subset Authors note strong psychometric properties | Symptoms of maternal depression | Parent education, maternal employment, maternal age (at birth), family structure, receipt of food subsidy, child exposure to cigarette smoke, number of well-baby visits, household poverty index ratio | Structural equation modeling: Mothers in food-insecure households reported higher levels of depressive symptoms (β = 0.243, p < 0.001), which were associated parent-reported fair or poor health in children at 24 months. |
Corman et al. 2016 [24] | Mothers (mean age, 25 years) from 75 birth hospitals in 20 US cities, included White, African American, Hispanic, and other races/ethnicities Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study | Longitudinal (2965) | Examine association between maternal depression in the postpartum year, housing conditions, and food insecurity | USDA HFSSM | CIDI short form Authors note that the measure has been validated | Clinical diagnosis of a MDE (defined as 3+ symptoms of dysphoria or anhedonia for most of the day for a period of at least 2 weeks) during the postpartum year (assessed at 1 year) | Maternal, paternal, and prenatal housing characteristics (measured at baseline), maternal grandparents‘ mental illness and child characteristics | Multivariable analysis: Compared to women who did not report depression, mothers who reported depression were more likely to experience inadequate housing at 2–3 years due to lack of heat (aOR 1.57, 95% CI 1.11–2.22) and energy insecurity (aOR 1.69, 95% CI 1.24–2.30). Depression was associated with combinations of hardships, including inadequate housing, housing instability, and food insecurity (aOR 3.85, 95% CI 1.34–11.11). |
Garg et al. 2015 [25] | Low-income mothers (mean age, 25 years) and their young children in the US, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, Asian-Pacific Islander, other races/ethnicities Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) | Longitudinal (2917) | To determine impact of maternal depression on future household food insecurity in low-income households with young children. | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 12 item Authors note that the short form has been previously validated. | Depressive symptoms | Maternal and household characteristics including race/ethnicity, age, marital status, employment, education, mothers’ foreign-born status, household income, and maternal self-reported health status. | Multivariable analyses: Maternal depression at baseline (9 months) was associated with food insecurity at follow-up (24 months) (aOR 1.50, 95% CI 1.06–2.12). Mothers who reported depressive symptoms and received WIC at baseline were more likely (aOR 1.59, 95% CI 1.15–2.21) to experience food insecurity at follow-up. |
Hanson et al. 2012 [15] | Low income, rural mothers (mean age, 30 years) in US, White and non-White races/ethnicities Rural Low-Income Families: Monitoring Their Well-being and Functioning in the Context of Welfare Reform | Longitudinal (225) | Examine food insecurity and various risk factors, including human capital, social support, and financial situation, among rural low-income families with children. | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 20-item | Depressive symptoms | Education, 3 or more chronic health conditions, food and financial skills, high support for parenting, home ownership at baseline, employment, housing assistance, participation in SNAP assistance, health insurance | Multivariable analyses: Compared to women having no years at risk for depression, women classified as at risk for depression for 2 consecutive years had 4.28 times greater odds of experiencing persistent versus no food insecurity (p < 0.01), and 3.65 times greater odds to experience persistent versus discontinuous food insecurity (p < 0.05). |
Hernandez et al. 2014 [26] | Low-income, urban, unmarried mothers (mean age, 28 years) of newborn children recruited from 75 birth hospitals in 20 US cities, White, African American, Hispanic, and other races/ethnicities Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study | Longitudinal (1690) | Examine association between intimate partner violence, depression, and household food insecurity | USDA HFSSM | CIDI short form | Clinical diagnosis of depression; depressive symptoms | Mothers’ age, race/ethnicity, education, employment, relationship status, household income, number of children, baseline food security | Multivariable analyses: Mothers reporting depression were twice as likely to be food-insecure two years later compared to mothers who did not report depression (aOR 2.03, 95% CI 1.45–2.84). The relationship between intimate partner violence and food insecurity among women was mediated by depression (z = 2.89, p < 0.01). |
Lent et al. 2009 [45] | Rural, low-income mothers (18+ years), recruited through local educators, WIC and Even Start programs in New York, US, majority White. Rural Families Speak: Tracking the Well-Being and Functioning of Rural Families in the Context of Welfare Policies Study | Longitudinal (mixed methods) (29) | Examine the temporal/causal relationship and potential mechanisms between mental health conditions such as depression and household food insecurity | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 20-item, SF-36 Health Survey (mental health scales: Vitality, Social Functioning, Role Emotional, Mental Health) | Depressive symptoms | Not applicable | Unadjusted analyses: High levels of depressive symptoms (according to the CES-D) at wave 2 were correlated with remaining food-insecure at wave 3 (p = 0.009); reverse relationship not significant. Unhealthy scores on the mental health scores at wave 2 were also associated with remaining food-insecure at wave 3 (p = 0.01). Qualitative analyses suggest that poor mental health contributes to persistence of food insecurity by limiting employment. |
Huddleston-Casas et al. 2009 [55] | Rural mothers (mean age, 30 years) recruited from programs serving low-income populations in 17 US states, included White, African American, Latina, and other races/ethnicities NC-223, Rural Families Speak Study | Longitudinal (413) | Examine direction of the relationship between household food insecurity and depression over three annual waves of data | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 20-item Authors note that reliability in this sample matched that documented for the general population | Depressive symptoms | Age, ethnicity, household income, marital status, education | Structural equation modeling (using data for 413 women, with sensitivity analysis with 184 women who had depression data for three waves): A bidirectional relationship between food insecurity and depression (X2/df = 1.835, RMSEA = 0.068, CFI = 0.989) was observed. |
Laraia et al. 2015 [27] | Pregnant women (16+ years), US, included White, Black, other races/ethnicities Pregnancy, Infection, and Nutrition (PIN) Postpartum study, recruited from University of North Carolina Hospitals and private clinics | Longitudinal (526) | To examine relationship between food insecurity and perceived stress, disordered eating, dietary intake, and postpartum weight status | USDA HFSSM, 18 items (between 27 and 30 weeks’ gestation) and 6-item short form (12 months postpartum) | Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) 10-item, Eating Attitude Test (EAT) 26 item Authors note that Cohen’s Perceived Stress has been validated in pregnant women | Perceived stress, disordered eating | Maternal race, age, marital status, education, parity, physical activity, smoking during pregnancy and postpartum, breastfeeding postpartum, poverty level | Multivariable analyses: Women living in food-insecure households during pregnancy had higher levels of perceived stress (β = 3.36, 95% CI 0.79–5.92) and higher scores for disordered eating (β = 1.95, 95% CI 0.25–4.16) at 3 months postpartum and higher levels of perceived stress (β = 3.67, 95% CI 0.94–6.41) at 12 months postpartum compared to those living in food-secure households during pregnancy. Women who experienced any level of household food insecurity during the postpartum period had higher perceived stress (β = 6.12, 95% CI 3.86–8.38), and higher scores for disordered eating (β = 1.79, 95% CI 0.03–3.62) compared to women in food-secure households. |
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Casey et al. 2004 [54] | Female caregivers (age not specified), US, women of African American, White, and Hispanic race/ethnicity Children’s Sentinel Nutrition Assessment Program (C-SNAP), recruited from medical centers in several large US cities | Cross-sectional (5306) | Examine nature of the relationship between depression, food insecurity, and loss of social assistance and its impact on child health | USDA HFSSM | Kemper 3-item screen Authors note sensitivity of 100%, specificity of 88%, and positive predictive value of 66% compared to an 8-item screening instrument | Maternal depressive symptoms | Study site location, race, insurance type, education, and low birth weight | Multivariable analysis: Mothers experiencing food insecurity had greater odds of positive depression screen compared to those from food secure households (aOR 2.69, 95% CI 2.33–3.11). Mothers experiencing a decrease or sanction in food stamp status had increased odds of reporting a positive depression screen, compared to those with no decrease in food stamp status (aOR 1.26, 95% CI 0.97–1.65 and aOR 1.56 95% CI 1.06–2.30, respectively). |
Chilton et al. 2013 [28] | Mothers (mean age, 26.7 years) in Philadelphia, US, African American, White, Hispanic races/ethnicities Recruited from public assistance programs through the Children’s Health Watch study | Cross-sectional (mixed methods) (44) | Explore aspects of exposure to violence related to food insecurity among lone mother households. | USDA HFSSM | Kemper 3-item screen | Maternal depressive symptoms | Not applicable | Descriptive estimates: A higher proportion of mothers living with very low food security reported depressive symptoms (71%) compared to those with low food security (53%) and food-secure (17%) mothers. Women living with very low food security (53%) were more likely to have experienced life-changing violence in childhood compared to those with low food security (33%) and food secure (33%) mothers. |
McCurdy et al. 2015 [29] | Low-income mothers (mean age, 30.1 years) and children recruited from 7 preschools in low-income urban neighborhoods in the US, included Hispanic and non-Hispanic races/ethnicities | Cross-sectional (166) | To determine correlates of weight, including food security, among low-income, ethnically diverse mothers and examine role of mental health | USDA HFSSM | CES-D 20-item Authors note high internal consistency for the measure and note acceptable internal reliability in this sample | Depressive symptoms | Not applicable | Bivariate analyses: Mothers living in food-insecure households had more depressive symptoms compared to food-secure mothers (t = 2.26, p < 0.02). |
Sun et al. 2016 [30] | Mothers (mean age, 24 years) of young children (aged < 4 years), US, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, other races/ethnicities, recruited from Philadelphia hospitals. | Cross-sectional (1255) | To examine association between adverse childhood experiences among mothers and household and child food insecurity determine associations with depressive symptoms | USDA HFSSM | Kemper 3-Item Screen, ACEs scale for Adverse Childhood Experiences Authors note that the Kemper 3-item is validated as a proxy for a longer screener with 100% sensitivity, 88% specificity, and 66% positive predictive value, and ACEs scale has been validated and shown to have good test-retest reliability. | Depressive symptoms, adverse childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction | Caregiver’s age and self-rated health, caregiver’s participation in nutrition programs, race/ethnicity, marital status, employment, education, and child’s health insurance, | Depressive symptoms were reported among 18.4% of women in food-secure households, 48.6% of those in households with low food security, and 54.4% of those in households with very low food security (p < 0.01). Multivariable analyses: Mothers who reported depressive symptoms and 4+ adverse childhood experiences were 2.3 times (95% CI 1.0–5.3) as likely to report low food security, 6.6 times (95% CI 2.1–20.5) as likely to report indications of very low food security compared to those reporting depressive symptoms but no adverse childhood experiences. In addition, mothers who reported depressive symptoms and 4+ adverse childhood experiences were 17.6 times (95% CI 7.3–42.6) as likely to report child food insecurity compared to those who reported no depressive symptoms and no adverse childhood experiences. |
Trapp et al. 2015 [31] | Low-income children (2–4 years) and mothers (18+ years), US, Hispanic, African-American races/ethnicities Steps to Growing Up Health study, primary care-based intervention | Cross-sectional (222) | Examine relationship between food security, diet, and weight status among urban preschool children, and examine whether maternal depression and stress acts as a mediator | USDA HFSSM | PHQ-2, Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale 4-item subset (PSS-4) Authors note that the PHQ-2 has good validity, and identified the sensitivity and specificity of the cutoff used for risk for major depression | Depressive symptoms and perceived stress | Household size, primary home language, marital status, employment, household income | Bivariate analyses: Mothers living in food-insecure households were more likely to report depressive symptoms compared to food-secure mothers (27% vs. 9%; p < 0.001), but perceived stress scores were not different between food-insecure and food-secure mothers (p = 0.5). |
Laraia et al. 2006 [56] | Low-income pregnant women (mean age, 29 years), US, included African American, White, and other races/ethnicities Pregnancy, Infection, and Nutrition (PIN) cohort study, recruited from University of North Carolina Hospitals and private clinics | Cross-sectional (606) | Examine prevalence and determinants of food insecurity among pregnant women from medium- and low-income women | USDA HFSSM | Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale 14-item, Spielberger’s Trait Anxiety Inventory 20-item, CES-D 20-item, Rosenberg’s Self Esteem Scale 10-item, Pearlin’s Mastery Scale 7-item, Levenson’s IPC Locus of Control 24-item Authors note stability and internal consistency of measures | Perceived stress, anxiety, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, mastery, locus of control | Mother’s age, number of children, household income, education, race, marital status | Multivariable analyses: Perceived stress (aOR 2.24, 95% CI 1.63–3.08), trait anxiety (aOR 2.14, 95% CI 1.55–2.96), depressive symptoms (aOR 1.87, 95% CI 1.40–2.51), and feeling that ones’ destiny is up to chance (aOR 1.67, 95% CI 1.20–2.32) were positively associated with household food insecurity. Women living in food-insecure households were less likely to report feelings of mastery over their lives (aOR 0.49, 95% CI 0.35–0.68) and high self-esteem (aOR 0.52, 95% CI 0.38–0.69). |
Muldoon et al. 2013 [32] | Adults (18–64 years), Canada 2007–2008 Canadian Community Health Survey | Cross-sectional (sample subset of 5588 reporting indications of food insecurity in the past year) | Examine rates of mental illness among Canadian adults who lived in food-insecure households with and without hunger | USDA HFSSM (Health Canada coding) | Self-reported diagnosis of chronic health conditions diagnosed by a health professional | Clinical diagnoses of mood or anxiety disorders | Education, age, single parent household status, immigrant status | Multivariable analyses: Females experiencing food insecurity with hunger had greater odds (aOR 1.89, 95% CI 1.62–2.20) of reporting a depression diagnosis compared to women who did not report food insecurity with hunger. |
Tarasuk et al. 2013 [16] | Adults (18–64 years), Canada 2007–2008 Canadian Community Health Survey | Cross-sectional (77,053) | Examine whether chronic physical and mental conditions health conditions are associated with household food insecurity | USDA HFSSM (Health Canada coding) | Self-reported presence of chronic health conditions diagnosed by a health professional | Clinical diagnoses of mood or anxiety disorders | Age, sex, province, education, household type, median household income, main source of household income, and home ownership | Multivariable analysis: Self-reported diagnoses of 3 or more chronic physical and mental health conditions raised the odds of a woman experiencing severe food insecurity (aOR 2.15, 95% CI 1.50–3.10) compared to fewer or no chronic conditions Among women in food-secure households, 11.6% reported mood or anxiety disorders; among those in marginally food-secure, moderately food-insecure, and severely food-insecure households, the prevalences were 20.3%, 26.8%, and 47.1%, respectively. |
Abbreviated/adapted versions of Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) | ||||||||
Longitudinal analyses | ||||||||
Melchior et al. 2009 [44] | Mothers of twins (average 35.5 years) from England and Wales, Britain, included White and non-White races/ethnicities. Environmental Risk Study | Longitudinal (1116) | Examine the association between food insecurity and maternal depression, psychosis spectrum disorder, alcohol or drug abuse, and intimate partner violence | USDA HFSSM, 7-item short form | Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) | Depressive symptoms, psychotic symptoms | Mother’s age, income, ethnicity, marital status, household size, mother’s employment, mother’s reading ability | Multivariable analyses: Food insecurity increased the odds of depression (OR 2.12, 95% CI 1.61–4.93), intimate partner violence (OR 2.36, 95% CI 1.18–4.73), and psychosis (OR 4.01, 95% CI 2.03–7.94) among women two years later. Food insecurity was associated with mental illness comorbidity in mothers—29% of food-insecure mothers had experienced mental health problems or intimate partner violence. |
Sidebottom et al. 2014 [33] | Pregnant women (mean age, 22 years) recruited from Health Centres in Minneapolis and St. Paul, US, included African American, American Indian, Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic (any race), White, and bi/multiracial women Data from the Twin Cities Healthy Start Program | Longitudinal (prenatal and postpartum assessments) (594) | Examine correlates of depression in pregnancy and postpartum period | USDA HFSSM, 4-item subset | PHQ-9 with modification of the item measuring psychomotor issues (split into 2 questions but scored as one) Authors noted sensitivity of 77%, specificity of 94%, and positive predictive value of 59% in primary care populations, with higher values in populations with a high prevalence of depressive disorder | Depressive symptoms | Age, race/ethnicity, foreign-born, lack of social support, abuse of any kind, child protection involvement, living with child’s father, drug, alcohol and cigarette use, lack of phone access, and housing instability | Multivariable analyses: Compared to women who had low depressive symptom levels in both the prenatal and postpartum periods, the odds of elevated depressive symptoms prenatally were higher (aOR 2.44, 95% CI 1.43–4.16) among those with low levels of food security. Food security and depressive symptoms in the postpartum period were not related. |
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Whitaker et al. 2006 [59] | Mothers (18+ years) of 3-year old children, recruited from 75 birth hospitals in 20 US cities. Included White, African American, Hispanic, other races/ethnicities Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study | Cross-sectional (2870) | Examine if food security is associated with prevalence of depression and anxiety in mothers and behavior problems in children | USDA HFSSM, 10 adult-referenced items | CIDI short form administered 3 years after child’s birth, modified cut-off for a major depressive episode (MDE) based on symptoms of anhedonia | Clinical diagnosis of a MDE or generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in the prior 12 months | Mother’s education, race/ethnicity, relationship status, employment in previous year, binge drinking, illicit drug use, global health, prenatal smoking, prenatal physical domestic violence, household income/poverty ratio, number of children, non-food related material hardship, and whether father was ever in jail | Multivariable analyses: Compared to fully food-secure mothers, experiencing marginal food insecurity increased the odds of experiencing an MDE or GAD (aOR 1.4, 95% CI 1.1–1.8; and aOR 1.7, 95% CI 1.0–2.7, respectively). Compared to fully food-secure mothers, experiencing food insecurity increased the odds of experiencing an MDE or GAD (aOR 2.2, 95% CI 1.6–2.9; and aOR 2.3, 95% CI 1.5–3.6 respectively). Mothers experiencing food insecurity twice as likely to also experience either MDE or GAD compared to food-secure mothers (aOR 2.2, 95% CI 1.6–2.9). |
Laraia et al. 2009 [58] | African American, first-time mothers (18–35 years) recruited from Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Children, and Infants (WIC) clinics in North Carolina, US Infant Care, Feeding, and Risk of Obesity observational study | Cross-sectional analysis of longitudinal study, focused on 3-month postpartum baseline data (206) | Identify maternal and household correlates of food insecurity among African-American mothers | USDA HFSSM, 6-item short form | CES-D, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale | Depressive symptoms and self-esteem | Maternal age, education, work status, depression score, and self-esteem, as well as household composition (presence of father, grandmother and household size) | Bivariate analyses: Women living in food-insecure households had significantly higher scores on the depressive scale compared to food-secure women (p < 0.05). Multivariable analyses: Depressive symptoms were associated with marginal food security and food insecurity (aRRR * 1.04, 95% CI 1.00–1.08 and aRRR * 1.10, 95% CI 1.04–1.16, respectively). Self-esteem scores were negatively associated with risk for marginal food security and food insecurity (aRRR * 0.91, 95% CI 0.84–0.98, and aRRR * 0.89, 95% CI 0.79–0.99, respectively) * aRRR = adjusted Relative Risk Ratio. |
Mathews et al. 2010 [34] | Mothers (<25 years) recruited from the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) clinics in Butte County, California, US, included White, non-White races/ethnicities | Cross-sectional (155) | Evaluate the prevalence of and associations between food insecurity and health status among women participating in WIC | USDA HFSSM, 6-item short form | SF-12 Health Survey Authors noted that the SF-12 has been validated previously | General mental (and physical) health symptoms | Diet choice score, income, ethnicity, age, education | Bivariate analyses: Women experiencing low or very low food insecurity had significantly lower mental health scores, indicating more mental health symptoms compared to food-secure women (p < 0.001). The correlation between food insecurity and mental health scores indicates that as women’s food security increased, mental health also increases. Multivariable analyses: The likelihood of having a good mental health score was lower (OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.16–0.73) among those in food-insecure versus those in food-secure households. |
Ajrouch et al. 2010 [35] | Female African-American caregivers (mean age, 30.8 years) of young children recruited from high-poverty census tracts in Detroit, US Detroit Centre for Research on Oral Health Disparities. | Cross-sectional (multiple waves of data collection, relevant variables were assessed in wave 2) (736) | Explore link between situational stressors, including food insufficiency, and psychological distress, and examine social support as a potential mediator | USDA HFSSM, 3-item subset (referred to as food insufficiency) Cronbach’s alpha reported as 0.79 | CES-D 20-item Authors noted high internal reliability in this sample | Depressive symptoms | Age, self-rated health, and education level | Multivariable analyses: Higher food insufficiency associated with higher depressive symptoms (referred to as psychological distress) (β = 2.88, p < 0.001). At high levels of stress, social support was not a mediator of this relationship. |
Hromi-Fielder et al. 2011 [36] | Low income, pregnant Latina women (mean age, 25 years), recruited from local agencies and programs in Hartford, Connecticut, US. | Cross-sectional (135) | Assess relationship between household food insecurity and prenatal depressive symptoms | USDA HFSSM, 15-item subset adapted version for pregnant Latinas Authors note that the adapted version was validated for this population | CES-D 20-item Authors note that the CES-D has been validated with multi-ethnic samples, including Mexican-Americans | Prenatal depressive symptoms | Parity, heartburn during pregnancy, self-reported health during pregnancy, history of depression, Latina subgroup, acculturation | Multivariable analyses: Women experiencing food insecurity were more likely to report high levels of prenatal depressive symptoms compared to those who were food secure (aOR 2.59, 95% CI 1.03–6.52). |
Harrison et al. 2008 [60] | Pregnant women in Minneapolis and St. Paul, US, included African American, Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, American Indian, White, bi/multiracial races/ethnicities. recruited from Federally Qualified Health Centres Feasibility study associated with Twin Cities Healthy Start Program | Cross-sectional (1386) | Examine the prevalence, co-occurrence, and inter-correlations of self-reported psychosocial risk factors, including food insecurity. | USDA HFSSM, 4-item subset | PHQ-9, intimate partner violence items, 8 items from the Maternal Social Support Index Authors note high levels of internal reliability, test-retest reliability, sensitivity, and specificity for PHQ-9 | Depressive symptoms | Not applicable | Bivariate analyses: Depressive symptoms (r = 0.267), social support (r = 0.194), and intimate partner violence (r = 0.173) were significantly correlated (p ≤ 0.0001) with household food insecurity. |
Martin et al. 2016 [17] | Adults (18–75 years), Canada Data from the 2009–2010 Canadian Community Health Survey | Cross-sectional (100,401) | To examine the co-occurrence of food insecurity and mental illness across varying levels of stress and community belonging | USDA HFSSM, 10 adult-referenced items (Health Canada coding) | Self-reported diagnosis of a mood or anxiety disorder, subsample (n = 47,942) completed CIDI short form, one item for each of perceived stress and community belonging | Clinical diagnosis of a mood disorder such as depression, bipolar disorder, mania, or dysthymia; or an anxiety disorder such as phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or panic disorder. Past 12 months of major depression from CIDI short form. | Age, marital status, children in house, household income, education, unemployment, and self-perceived physical health, as well as overall stress level and community belonging. | Multivariable analyses: Women living in severely food-insecure households had 18.4% (95% CI 16.7–20.1) greater adjusted prevalence of a mental disorder compared to those living in food-secure households. The prevalence of women reporting high levels of stress increased with worsening food security. Greater proportions of severely food-insecure women reported low community belonging compared to more food-secure women. Interaction between community belonging, food insecurity, and perceived stress not significant. |
Dressler et al. 2015 [37] | Low-income women (18–64 years) recruited from homeless shelters, food pantries, libraries, soup kitchens, and community centers, US, included African American, White, Native American women | Cross-sectional (330) | Examine depression and its relationship with food insecurity, weight status, emotional eating, and dietary intake among low-income women | USDA HFSSM, 6-item short form | CES-D 20-item, emotional eating questions developed using validated questionnaires Authors note that the CES-D is valid and reliable and note the internal consistency in the sample for both the CES-D and the emotional eating questions | Symptoms of depression and emotional eating | Not applicable | Bivariate analyses: Women categorized as depressed had higher food insecurity scores compared to women who were not depressed (3.2 vs. 1.9, p < 0.05). Depression and emotional eating were also associated. |
Kaiser et al. 2007 [57] | Women (18+ years) living in California, US, included White, African American, Hispanic/Latino, and other races/ethnicities. 2004 California Women’s Health Survey | Cross-sectional (4037) | Identify factors associated with food insecurity | USDA HFSSM, 6-item subset, modified to refer to respondent and not to other adults in household | Indicators of mental or emotional problems | Mental, (physical), or emotional problems that interfere with daily life, feeling depressed or sad, and feeling overwhelmed | Income as a proportion of the federal poverty ratio | Multivariable analyses: Higher food insecurity was associated with feeling depressed or sad for 2+ days in the prior month (aOR 1.61, 95% CI 1.28–2.02), feeling overwhelmed in past 30 days (aOR 3.10, 95% CI 2.49–3.85), and reporting that physical or mental health conditions interfered with normal activities in past 30 days (aOR 1.81, 95% CI 1.45–2.27). |
Peterman et al. 2013 [38] | Cambodian women (30–65 years) recruited from clients of the Cambodian Mutual Assurance Association of Lowell, Massachusetts, US Cambodian Community Health Program 2010 | Cross-sectional (150) | Examine post-immigration experiences with food, food security status, and correlates among refugee women | USDA HFSSM, 6-item short form | Harvard Program in Refugee Trauma’s depression scale; 14 items, previously translated and validated for use in Cambodian refugee populations | Clinical diagnosis of depression | Marital status, receipt of food stamps, income to poverty ratio, acculturation, age | Multivariable analyses: Women experiencing marginal/low/very low food security were more likely (aOR 3.73, 95% CI 1.26–11.05) to be classified as depressed compared to those in food-secure households. |
Sharpe et al. 2016 [39] | Low-income women (25–51 years) recruited from 18 census tracts in which 25% or more of residents had below-poverty income in South Carolina, US, mainly African-American Sisters Taking Action for Real Success (STARS) trial | Cross-sectional (202) | Examine whether on diet quality and psychosocial and behavioral factors are associated with household food security | USDA HFSSM, 6-item short form | CES-D 10 item, emotional eating subscale of the Eating Behavior Patterns Questionnaire Authors noted that the CESD-10 has been validated and that the Eating Behavior Patterns Questionnaire has been shown to have acceptable internal consistency and construct validity in African-American women; authors also identified Cronbach’s alphas for both measures in the study sample | Symptoms of depression and emotional eating | Not applicable | Bivariate analyses: Women experiencing food insecurity had significantly higher scores for depressive symptoms (indicating more symptoms) compared to women living in food-secure households (mean score 10.9 (SD 6.1) vs. 8.3 (SD 5.0), t = 3.36, p < 0.001). Women experiencing food insecurity had significantly lower emotional eating scores (indicating higher levels of emotional eating) compared to women living in food-secure households (mean score 10.2 (SD 3.1) vs. 11.4 (SD 3.8), t = 2.45, p < 0.02). |
Davey-Rothwell et al. 2014 [40] | Low-income women (18–55 years) at risk for HIV, recruited through street outreach and public advertisements in the US, majority African-American women Data from the CHAT study | Cross-sectional (based on 6-month visit) (443) | Explore food insecurity among drug-using and non-drug-using women and examine the relationship between depression and food insecurity | USDA HFSSM, 4-item subset Authors noted acceptable internal consistency in this sample | CES-D 20-item Authors noted high internal consistency in this sample | Depressive symptoms | Age, race, income, receipt of food stamps | Multivariable analyses: Drug-users were 2.71 times (aOR, 95% CI 1.51–4.88), and non-drug-users were 5.9 times (aOR, 95% CI 2.80–12.45) more likely to experience depression if they were food insecure compared to food secure. |
Radimer–Cornell Scale | ||||||||
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Sharkey et al. 2011 [41] | Urban and rural women (18+ years) living in Brazos Valley, Texas, US, included White and non-White races/ethnicities Brazos Valley Health Status Assessment | Cross-sectional (1367) | Examine health status, mental distress, and household food insecurity among urban and rural women | Radimer–Cornell Scale, first item focused on food deprivation (food we bought did not last and we did not have enough money to buy more) was used to determine presence of household food insecurity Authors noted that the Scale has been shown to be valid for non-white participants | Centre for Disease Control (CDC) and the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Systems (BRFSS) questionnaire to assess health-related quality of life (perceived mental—and general and physical—well-being—thinking about your mental health, which includes stress, depression, and problems with emotions, for how many days during the past 30 days was your mental health not good?) Authors noted that the measures have been shown to be valid for non-white populations | Perceived mental health (stress, depression, problems with emotions), referred to as frequent mental distress | Age, race, education, annual household income, employment, rural vs. urban geographic location | Multivariable analyses: Women experiencing food insecurity in the last 30 days were more likely to frequently experience mental distress compared to food-secure women (aOR 2.25, 95% CI 1.59–3.18). |
Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project (CCHIP) measure | ||||||||
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Wehler et al. 2004 [52] | Homeless and housed women (mean age, 28 years) recruited from Worcester’s homeless shelters and welfare hostels and the Department of Public Welfare office, US, included White, African American, Hispanic, and other races/ethnicities. Worcester Family Research Project | Cross-sectional (354) | Examine factors associated with adult or child hunger among low-income housed and homeless female-headed families | CCHIP, 7 items querying adult and child hunger Authors noted high level of internal consistency and factor analysis indicated a single-factor solution | Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM-III-R non-patient edition), Life Experiences Survey | Clinical diagnosis of substance use, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major life events in adulthood (e.g., violence) | Age, ethnicity, housing status, marital status, acculturation, parenting status, parent substance abuse, foster care status, number and age of children, income, psychological factors (coping and parental hassles), social service utilization, social network size | Exploratory analytic approach identified factors differentiating families with child hunger from those with no hunger, these did not include the mental health factors. Multivariable analyses: The experience of sexual abuse in childhood increased the odds of adult hunger (aOR: 4.23, 95% CI 2.28–7.82); intimate partner violence in adulthood and a PTSD diagnosis appeared to be mediators of the childhood sexual abuse-current hunger association. Financial support from a sibling reduced the odds of experiencing food insecurity. |
NHANES-III food insufficiency indicators | ||||||||
Longitudinal analyses | ||||||||
Heflin et al. 2005 [62] | Mothers (18–54 years) receiving public assistance in urban Michigan, US, included African American, non-Hispanic White races/ethnicities Women’s Employment Study | Longitudinal (753) | Examine effect of food insecurity on the mental health status of welfare recipients over a 3-year period | NHANES-III food insufficiency question Authors noted that this measure is widely accepted as a valid measure of food insufficiency | CIDI short form, Pearlin Mastery Scale 7 item | Clinical diagnosis of depression, mastery (degree to which individuals perceive themselves to be in control of their own lives) | Household size, marital status, household income, poverty-related stressful life circumstances, neighborhood hazards, domestic violence, experiences of discrimination based on race and gender | Multivariable fixed effects models: Changes in food insecurity significantly predict changes in major depression status after adjusting for changes in household composition and socio-environmental stressors (β = 0.75, SE 0.24. p < 0.01). No association observed between changes in food insufficiency status and changes in mastery. |
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Siefert et al. 2001 [64] | Single women receiving welfare (mean age, 28 years) living in urban Michigan, US, included African-American, White women Women’s Employment Study | Cross-sectional (724) | Examine relationship between food insufficiency and physical and mental health among low-income women | NHANES-III food insufficiency question Authors noted that this measure is widely accepted as a valid measure of food insufficiency | CIDI short form Authors noted that acceptable test-retest reliability and clinical validity have been observed | Clinical diagnosis of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder | Self-rated health, physical limitations, age, number of children in the household, education level, poverty level, employment, poverty-related stressful life events and conditions | Multivariable analyses: Food insufficiency significantly predicted major depressive disorder (aOR 2.21, 95% CI 1.48–3.29). The association between food insufficiency and generalized anxiety disorder, adjusted for covariates, was not significant. |
Siefert et al. 2007 [63] | African-American mothers (mean age, 28 years) recruited from 39 high-poverty census areas in Detroit, US Detroit Center for Research on Oral Health Disparities | Cross-sectional (multiple waves of data collection, relevant variables were assessed in wave 1) (824) | Determine correlates of depressive symptoms among low-income mothers | NHANES-III food insufficiency questionAuthors noted that this measure is widely accepted as a valid measure of food insufficiency | CES-D, 20-item Authors noted that the CES-D is a reliable and well-validated sale, with standard scoring widely used in research, four-factor structure found in the general population has also been found in African-Americans with low socioeconomic status | Depressive symptoms | Living in poorly maintained housing, not being employed, experiences of everyday discrimination, instrumental and emotional social support, age, education, household size, number of children <18 years of age, income | Bivariate analyses: Mothers with depressive symptoms more likely to report household food insufficiency (14.5%) compared to women without depressive symptoms (6%). Multivariable analyses: In models adjusted for income and education, living in a food-insufficient household was associated with 2.5 greater odds (95% CI 1.25–4.98) of maternal depressive symptoms. Instrumental social support was a protective factor. |
Other brief measures | ||||||||
Cross-sectional analyses | ||||||||
Birmingham et al. 2011 [42] | Mothers of newborns (mean age, 25 years), US., included African American, Hispanic, White, Asian, other races/ethnicities, recruited from urban pediatric emergency departments | Cross-sectional (195) | To examine the performance of the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) for screening patients in emergency departments, and examine correlates of postpartum depression | 2 items querying worry about the food supply and inability to eat the way you should due to lack of money | EPDS 3-item short form | Postpartum depressive symptoms | Maternal age, ethnicity, education, marital status, employment, maternal health problems, health insurance, household income, household size, father’s presence in the home, social support, infant health and health insurance, | Multivariable analyses: Having concerns about food increased odds (aOR 5.5, 95% CI 2.2–13.5) of postpartum depression. |
Carter et al. 2011 [43] | General population (15+ years) in New Zealand, included NZ/European, Maori, Pacific, Asian, and other groups. New Zealand Survey of Families, Income, and Employment, 2002–2010 | Cross-sectional (18,090) | Examine association between food insecurity and psychological distress | Food security items from measure of individual deprivation (NZiDep): 3 items querying use of food banks and food compromises due to lack of money for food in last 12 months | Kessler-10 scale | Symptoms of psychological distress | Age, ethnicity, legal marital status, family composition, household income, employment, highest level of education, individual-level deprivation | Multivariable analyses: Women who experienced food insecurity were more likely to report moderate to high levels of psychological distress (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.8–2.4). |
Klesges et al. 2001 [68] | Disabled women (65+ years) living in the community in Baltimore, US, primarily White women Women’s Health and Aging Study | Cross-sectional (1001) | Examine prevalence and correlates of financial difficulty acquiring food | Single item, self-perception of food sufficiency “How often does it happen that you (and your husband) do not have enough money to afford the kind of food you should have?” Authors note that such single-item measures have shown validity in discriminating energy intake differences, but have poor sensitivity and underestimate prevalence | Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS),Hopkins Symptom Checklist subscale for anxiety, 20-item perceived quality of life scale | Symptoms of depression, anxiety, quality of life | Age, marital status, and number of household members | Multivariable analyses: In non-white women, depression was associated with financial difficulty accessing food (aOR 1.13, 95% CI 1.04–1.22). This association not significant among white women after adjusting for covariates. |
Sharkey et al. 2003 [69] | Women (60+ years) who are homebound (as a result of disability, illness, or isolation), recruited from meal delivery programs in North Carolina, US, included African-American and White women Nutrition and Function Study (NAFS) | Cross-sectional (279) | Examine food sufficiency and association with dietary intake and burden of multiple diseases | Four items adapted from a national nutrition evaluation survey, 2 situations related to lack of food, 2 related to making trade-offs between food and other necessities Authors noted that the items were previously used in a national evaluation of elderly nutrition programs | Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) 15-item short form | Depressive symptoms | Not applicable | Bivariate analyses: Women experiencing food insufficiency had higher prevalence of 6 or more depressive symptoms (52% vs. 26%, p = 0.03) and disease multi-morbidity (74% vs. 41%, p < 0.001) compared to those who were food sufficient. |
References
- Gregory, C.A.; Coleman-Jensen, A. Food Insecurity, Chronic Disease, and Health among Working-Age Adults; Economic Research Report, 235; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2017. Available online: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/84467/err-235_summary.pdf?v=42942 (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Tarasuk, V.; Mitchell, A.; Dachner, N. Household Food Insecurity in Canada, 2014. 2016. Available online: http://proof.utoronto.ca/resources/proof-annual-reports/annual-report-2014/ (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Coleman-Jensen, A.; Rabbitt, M.P.; Gregory, C.; Singh, A. Household Food Security in the United States in 2016; Economic Research Report; United States Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 2017. Available online: https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/84973/err237_summary.pdf?v=42979 (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Tarasuk, V.; Mitchell, A.; Dashner, N. Household Food Insecurity in Canada, 2012. 2014. Available online: http://proof.utoronto.ca/resources/proof-annual-reports/annual-report-2012/ (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Bates, B.; Roberts, C.; Lepps, H.; Porter, L. The Food & You Survey: Wave 4. 2017. Available online: https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/media/document/food-and-you-w4-exec-summary.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Lindberg, R.; Lawrence, M.; Gold, L.; Friel, S.; Pegram, O. Food insecurity in Australia: Implications for general practitioners. Aust. Fam. Physician 2015, 44, 859–863. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- FAO. Agriculture and Development Economics Division. Food Security: Policy Brief. 2006. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/faoitaly/documents/pdf/pdf_Food_Security_Cocept_Note.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Bickel, G.; Nord, M.; Price, C.; Hamilton, W.; Cook, J. Guide to Measuring Household Food Security; USDA: Alexandria, VA, USA, 2000. Available online: https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/FSGuide.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Entmacher, J.; Robbins, K.; Vogtman, J.; Morrison, A. Insecure and Unequal: Poverty and Income among Women and Families, 2000–2013; National Women’s Law Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2014; Available online: https://nwlc.org/resources/insecure-unequal-poverty-and-income-among-women-and-families-2000-2013/ (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Maheux, H.; Chui, T. Women in Canada: A Gender-Based Statistical Report; Statistics: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2011; Available online: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/89-503-x/89-503-x2010001-eng.htm (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Semega, J.L.; Fontenot, K.R.; Kollar, M.A. Income and Poverty in the United States: 2016. Current Population Reports; 2017. Available online: https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2017/demo/p60-259.html (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Ivers, L.C.; Cullen, K.A. Food insecurity: Special considerations for women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 94, 1740S–1744S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Knowles, M.; Rabinowich, J.; Ettinger de Cuba, S.; Cutts, D.B.; Chilton, M. “Do you wanna breathe or eat?”: Parent perspectives on child health consequences of food insecurity, trade-offs, and toxic stress. Matern. Child Health J. 2015, 20, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kirkpatrick, S.I.; Tarasuk, V. Food insecurity is associated with nutrient inadequacies among Canadian adults and adolescents. J. Nutr. 2008, 138, 604–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hanson, K.L.; Olson, C.M. Chronic health conditions and depressive symptoms strongly predict persistent food insecurity among rural low-income families. J. Health Care Poor Underserved. 2012, 23, 1174–1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tarasuk, V.; Mitchell, A.; McLaren, L.; McIntyre, L. Chronic physical and mental health conditions among adults may increase vulnerability to household food insecurity. J. Nutr. 2013, 143, 1785–1793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martin, M.S.; Maddocks, E.; Chen, Y.; Gilman, S.E.; Colman, I. Food insecurity and mental illness: Disproportionate impacts in the context of perceived stress and social isolation. Public Health 2016, 132, 86–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McIntyre, L.; Williams, J.V.A.; Lavorato, D.H.; Patten, S. Depression and suicide ideation in late adolescence and early adulthood are an outcome of child hunger. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 150, 123–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jessiman-Perreault, G.; McIntyre, L. The household food insecurity gradient and potential reductions in adverse population mental health outcomes in Canadian adults. SSM Popul. Health 2017, 3, 464–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davison, K.M.; Marshall-Fabien, G.L.; Tecson, A. Association of moderate and severe food insecurity with suicidal ideation in adults: National survey data from three Canadian provinces. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2015, 50, 963–972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Health Canada. Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 2.2, Nutrition (2004): Income-related Household Food Security in Canada; No. 4696; HC Publisher: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2007; Available online: https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/migration/hc-sc/fn-an/alt_formats/hpfb-dgpsa/pdf/surveill/income_food_sec-sec_alim-eng.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Arksey, H.; O’Malley, L. Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 2005, 8, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G.; Grp, P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement (reprinted from annals of internal medicine). Phys. Ther. 2009, 89, 873–880. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Corman, H.; Curtis, M.A.; Noonan, K.; Reichman, N.E. Maternal depression as a risk factor for children’s inadequate housing conditions. Soc. Sci. Med. 2016, 149, 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garg, A.; Toy, S.; Tripodis, Y.; Cook, J.; Cordella, N. Influence of maternal depression on household food insecurity for low-income families. Acad Pediatr. 2015, 15, 305–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hernandez, D.C.; Marshall, A.; Mineo, C. Maternal depression mediates the association between intimate partner violence and food insecurity. J. Womens Health 2014, 23, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Laraia, B.; Vinikoor-Imler, L.C.; Siega-Riz, A.M. Food insecurity during pregnancy leads to stress, disordered eating, and greater postpartum weight among overweight women. Obesity 2015, 23, 1303–1311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chilton, M.M.; Rabinowich, J.R.; Woolf, N.H. Very low food security in the USA is linked with exposure to violence. Public Health Nutr. 2013, 17, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McCurdy, K.; Kisler, T.; Gorman, K.S.; Metallinos-Katsaras, E. Food- and health-related correlates of self-reported body mass index among low-income mothers of young children. J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 2015, 47, 225–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sun, J.; Knowles, M.; Patel, F.; Frank, D.A.; Heeren, T.C.; Chilton, M. Childhood adversity and adult reports of food insecurity among households with children. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2016, 50, 561–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Trapp, C.M.; Burke, G.; Gorin, A.A.; Wiley, J.F.; Hernandez, D.; Crowell, R.E.; Grant, A.; Beaulieu, A.; Cloutier, M.M. The relationship between dietary patterns, body mass index percentile, and household food security in young urban children. Child. Obes. 2015, 11, 148–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muldoon, K.A.; Duff, P.K.; Fielden, S.; Anema, A. Food insufficiency is associated with psychiatric morbidity in a nationally representative study of mental illness among food insecure Canadians. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2013, 48, 795–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sidebottom, A.C.; Hellerstedt, W.L.; Harrison, P.A.; Hennrikus, D. An examination of prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms among women served by urban community health centers. Arch. Womens Ment. Health 2014, 17, 27–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mathews, L.; Morris, M.N.; Schneider, J.; Goto, K. The relationship between food security and poor health among female WIC participants. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2010, 5, 85–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ajrouch, K.J.; Reisine, S.; Lim, S.; Sohn, W.; Ismail, A. Situational stressors among African-American women living in low-income urban areas: The role of social support. Women Health 2010, 50, 159–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hromi-Fiedler, A.; Bermúdez-Millán, A.; Segura-Pérez, S.; Pérez-Escamilla, R. Household food insecurity is associated with depressive symptoms among low-income pregnant Latinas. Matern. Child Nutr. 2011, 7, 421–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dressler, H.; Smith, C. Depression affects emotional eating and dietary intake and is related to food insecurity in a group of multiethnic, low-income women. J. Hunger Environ. Nutr. 2015, 10, 496–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peterman, J.N.; Wilde, P.E.; Silka, L.; Bermudez, O.I.; Rogers, B.L. Food insecurity among Cambodian refugee women two decades post resettlement. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 2013, 15, 372–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sharpe, P.A.; Whitaker, K.; Alia, K.A.; Wilcox, S.; Hutto, B. Dietary intake, behaviors and psychosocial factors among women from food-secure and food-insecure households in the United States. Ethn Dis. 2016, 26, 139–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davey-Rothwell, M.A.; Flamm, L.J.; Kassa, H.T.; Latkin, C.A. Food insecurity and depressive symptoms: Comparison of drug using and nondrug-using women at risk for HIV. J. Commun. Psychol. 2014, 42, 469–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sharkey, J.R.; Johnson, C.M.; Dean, W.R. Relationship of household food insecurity to health-related quality of life in a large sample of rural and urban women. Women Health 2011, 51, 442–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Birmingham, M.C.; Chou, K.J.; Crain, E.F. Screening for postpartum depression in pediatric emergency department. Pediatr. Emerg. Care 2011, 27, 795–800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Carter, K.N.; Kruse, K.; Blakely, T.; Collings, S. The association of food security with psychological distress in New Zealand and any gender differences. Soc. Sci. Med. 2011, 72, 1463–1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Melchior, M.; Caspi, A.; Howard, L.M.; Ambler, A.P.; Bolton, H.; Mountain, N.; Moffitt, T.E. Mental health context of food insecurity: A representative cohort of families with young children. Pediatrics 2009, 124, e564–e572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lent, M.D.; Petrovic, L.E.; Swanson, J.A.; Olson, C.M. Maternal mental health and the persistence of food insecurity in poor rural families. J. Health Care Poor Underserved. 2009, 20, 645–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wunderlich, G.S.; Norwood, J. Food Insecurity and Hunger in the United States: An Assessment of the Measure; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2006; Available online: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/11578/food-insecurity-and-hunger-in-the-united-states-an-assessment (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Radimer, K.L.; Olson, C.M.; Greene, J.C.; Campbell, C.C.; Habicht, J.P. Understanding hunger and developing indicators to assess it in women and children. J. Nutr. Educ. 1992, 24, 36S–44S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wehler, C.A.; Scott, R.I.; Anderson, J. The community child hunger identification project: A model of domestic hunger—Demonstration project in Seattle, Washington. J. Nutr. Educ. 1992, 24 (Suppl. 1), 29S–35S. [Google Scholar]
- Frongillo, E.A., Jr.; Rauschenbach, B.S.; Olson, C.M.; Kendall, A.; Colmenares, A.G. Questionnaire-based measures are valid for the identification of rural households with hunger and food insecurity. J. Nutr. 1997, 127, 699–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Briefel, R.R.; Woteki, C. Development of food sufficiency questions for the third national health and nutrition examination survey. J. Nutr. Educ. 1992, 24 (Suppl. 1), 24S–28S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tarasuk, V. Discussion Paper on Household and Individual Food Insecurity. 2001. Available online: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/nutrition-policy-reports/discussion-paper-household-individual-food-insecurity-2001.html (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Wehler, C.; Weinreb, L.F.; Huntington, N.; Scott, R. Risk and protective factors for adult and child hunger among low-income housed and homeless female-headed families. Am. J. Public Health 2004, 94, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bronte-Tinkew, J.; Zaslow, M.; Capps, R.; Horowitz, A.; McNamara, M. Food insecurity works through depression, parenting, and infant feeding to influence overweight and health in toddlers. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2160–2165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Casey, P.; Goolsby, S.; Berkowitz, C.; Frank, D.; Cook, J.; Cutts, D.; Black, M.M.; Zaldivar, N.; Levenson, S.; Heeren, T.; et al. Maternal depression, changing public assistance, food security, and child health status. Pediatrics 2004, 113, 298–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huddleston-Casas, C.; Charnigo, R.; Simmons, L.A. Food insecurity and maternal depression in rural, low-income families: A longitudinal investigation. Public Health Nutr. 2009, 12, 1133–1140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Laraia, B.A.; Siega-Riz, A.M.; Gundersen, C.; Dole, N. Psychosocial factors and socioeconomic indicators are associated with household food insecurity among pregnant women. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 177–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kaiser, L.; Baumrind, N.; Dumbauld, S. Who is food-insecure in California? Findings from the California Women’s Health Survey, 2004. Public Health Nutr. 2007, 10, 574–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Laraia, B.A.; Borja, J.B.; Bentley, M.E. Grandmothers, fathers, and depressive symptoms are associated with food insecurity among low-income first-time African-American mothers in North Carolina. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2009, 109, 1042–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Whitaker, R.C.; Phillips, S.M.; Orzol, S.M. Food insecurity and the risks of depression and anxiety in mothers and behavior problems in their preschool-aged children. Pediatrics 2006, 118, e859–e868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harrison, P.A.; Sidebottom, A.C. Systematic prenatal screening for psychosocial risks. J. Health Care Poor Underserved. 2008, 19, 258–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988–94: NHANES-III Household Adult Data File Documentation, Ages 17+. Available online: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes3/DataFiles.aspx (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Heflin, C.M.; Siefert, K.; Williams, D.R. Food insufficiency and women’s mental health: Findings from a 3-year panel of welfare recipients. Soc. Sci. Med. 2005, 61, 1971–1982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Siefert, K.; Finlayson, T.L.; Williams, D.R.; Delva, J.; Ismail, A.I. Modifiable risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in low-income African American mothers. Am. J. Orthopsychiatr. 2007, 77, 113–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Siefert, K.; Heflin, C.M.; Corcoran, M.E.; Williams, D.R. Food insufficiency and the physical and mental health of low-income women. Women Health 2001, 32, 159–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salmond, C.; Crampton, P.; King, P.; Waldegrave, C. NZiDep: A New Zealand index of socioeconomic deprivation for individuals. Soc. Sci. Med. 2006, 62, 1474–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kendall, A.; Olson, C.; Frongillo, E.A., Jr. Validation of the Radimer/Cornell measures of hunger and food insecurity. J. Nutr. 1995, 125, 2793–2801. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Hamelin, A.M.; Beaudry, M.; Habicht, J.P. Characterization of household food insecurity in Québec: Food and feelings. Soc. Sci. Med. 2002, 54, 119–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klesges, L.M.; Pahor, M.; Guralnik, J.M.; Shorr, R.I.; Williamson, J.D. Financial difficulty acquiring food among elderly disabled women: Results from the Women’s Health and Aging Study (WHAS). Am. J. Public Health 2001, 91, 68–75. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Sharkey, J.R. Risk and presence of food insufficiency are associated with low nutrient intakes and multimorbidity among homebound older women who receive home-delivered meals. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 3485–3491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. WHO WMH-CIDI Instruments. World Health Organization. 2018. Available online: https://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmhcidi/about-the-who-wmh-cidi/ (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Radloff, L.S. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 1977, 1, 385–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Psychological Association. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). 2018. Available online: http://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/practice-settings/assessment/tools/trait-state.aspx (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Derogatis, L.R.; Lipman, R.S.; Rickels, K.; Uhlenhuth, E.H.; Covi, L. The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behav. Sci. 1974, 19, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kemper, K.J.; Babonis, T.R. Screening for maternal depression in pediatric clinics. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1992, 146, 876–878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cox, J.L.; Holden, J.M.; Sagovsky, R. Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry 1987, 150, 782–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yesavage, J.A.; Brink, T.L.; Rose, T.L.; Lum, O.; Huang, V.; Adey, M.; Leirer, V.O. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. J. Psychiatr. Res. 1982, 17, 37–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.; Kamarck, T.; Mermelstein, R. A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1983, 24, 385–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weiner, I.B.; Craighead, W.E. Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM-IV (DIS-IV). In The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology; John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Andrews, G.; Slade, T. Interpreting scores on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10). Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health 2010, 25, 494–497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kroenke, K.; Spitzer, R.L.; Williams, J.B.W. The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2001, 16, 606–613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pearlin, L.I.; Menaghan, E.G.; Lieberman, M.A.; Mullan, J.T. The stress process. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1981, 22, 337–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rosenberg, M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1965. [Google Scholar]
- Brazier, J.E.; Harper, R.; Jones, N.M.B.; O’Cathain, A.; Thomas, K.J.; Usherwood, T.; Westlake, L. Validating the SF-36 health survey questionnaire: New outcome measure for primary care. Br. Med. J. Gen. Pract. 1992, 305, 160–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wittchen H-UU. Reliability and validity studies of the WHO—Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI): A critical review. J. Psychiatr. Res. 1994, 28, 57–84. [Google Scholar]
- Weinreb, L.; Wehler, C.; Perloff, J.; Scott, R.; Hosmer, D.; Sagor, L.; Gundersen, C. Hunger: Its impact on children’s health and mental health. Pediatrics 2002, 110, e41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seligman, H.K.; Schillinger, D. Hunger and socioeconomic disparities in chronic disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363, 6–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garner, A.S.; Shonkoff, J.P.; Siegel, B.S.; Dobbins, M.I.; Earls, M.F.; Garner, A.S.; Shonkoff, J.P. Early childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the role of the pediatrician: Translating developmental science into lifelong health. Pediatrics 2012, 129, e224–e231. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Bruening, M.; van Woerden, I.; Todd, M.; Laska, M.N. Hungry to learn: The prevalence and effects of food insecurity on health behaviors and outcomes over time among a diverse sample of university freshmen. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2018, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bruening, M.; Argo, K.; Payne-Sturges, D.; Laska, M.N. The struggle is real: A systematic review of food insecurity on postsecondary education campuses. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 117, 1767–1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Farahbakhsh, J.; Hanbazaza, M.; Ball, G.D.C.; Farmer, A.P.; Maximova, K.; Willows, N.D. Food insecure student clients of a university-based food bank have compromised health, dietary intake and academic quality. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 74, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bruening, M.; Brennhofer, S.; van Woerden, I.; Todd, M.; Laska, M. Factors related to the high rates of food insecurity among diverse, urban college freshmen. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2016, 116, 1450–1457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- O’Connell, M.E.; Boat, T.; Warner, K. Preventing Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders among Young People: Progress and Possibilities; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2009. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK32775/ (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Kessler, R.C.; Berglund, P.; Demler, O.; Jin, R.; Merikangas, K.R.W.E. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2005, 62, 593–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Coates, J.; Swindale, A.; Bilinsky, P. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide; FANTA III; Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance: Washington, DC, USA, 2007; Available online: https://www.fantaproject.org/monitoring-and-evaluation/household-food-insecurity-access-scale-hfias (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Hamelin, A.-M.; Habicht, J.-P.; Beaudry, M. Food insecurity: Consequences for the household and broader social implications. J. Nutr. 1999, 129, 525S–528S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Becker, C.B.; Middlemass, K.; Taylor, B.; Johnson, C.; Gomez, F. Food insecurity and eating disorder pathology. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2017, 50, 1031–1040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vandenbroucke, J.P.; Von Elm, E.; Altman, D.G.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Pocock, S.J.; Poole, C.; Schlesselman, J.J.; Egger, M. Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): Explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med. 2007, 4, 1628–1654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sterman, J.D. Learning from evidence in a complex world. Am. J. Public Health 2006, 96, 505–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mabry, P.L.; Marcus, S.E.; Clark, P.I.; Leischow, S.J.; M’Endez, D. Systems science: A revolution in public health policy research. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 1161–1163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Friel, S.; Pescud, M.; Malbon, E.; Lee, A.; Carter, R.; Greenfield, J.; Cobcroft, M.; Potter, J.; Rychetnik, L.; Meertens, B. Using systems science to understand the determinants of inequities in healthy eating. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0188872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tarasuk, V. Implications of a basic income guarantee for household food insecurity. In Basic Income Guarantee Series; Research Paper No. 24; Northern Policy Institute: Thunder Bay, ON, USA, 2017; Available online: http://proof.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Paper-Tarasuk-BIG-EN-17.06.13-1712.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Public Policy and Food Insecurity Fact Sheet. PROOF Food Insecurity Policy Research; Public Policy and Food Insecurity Fact Sheet: Toronto, ON, USA, 2016; Volume 41, Available online: http://proof.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/public-policy-factsheet.pdf (accessed on 27 June 2018).
- Forget, E.L. The town with no poverty: The health effects of a Canadian income guaranteed annual income field experiment. Can. Public Policy 2011, 37, 283–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Community Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Promoting food security for all children. Pediatrics 2015, 136, e1431–e1438. [Google Scholar]
- Tarasuk, V.; Cheng, J.; de Oliveira, C.; Dachner, N.; Gundersen, C.; Kurdyak, P. Association between household food insecurity and annual health care costs. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 2015, 187, E429–E436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Holben, D.H.; Marshall, M.B. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: Food Insecurity in the United States. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2017, 117, 1991–2002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McGorry, P.; Tanti, C.; Stokes, R.E.A. Australia’s national youth mental health foundation—Where young minds come first. MJS 2007, 187, 5–8. [Google Scholar]
- Pinto, A.D.; Bloch, G.; Bloch, G. Framework for building primary care capacity to address the social determinants of health. Can. Fam. Physician 2017, 63, 476–482. [Google Scholar]
Measure | Description | Abbreviated and Modified Versions | Articles Using Full Version | Articles Using Modified Versions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project | An 8-item scale developed by Wehler et al. [48]. Part of a survey instrument to examine the prevalence of hunger among low-income families. The items address qualitative and quantitative compromises among adults and children. Shown to have good specificity and sensitivity compared to evaluations of food security status based on household food inventories, dietary recall data, and other measures among a sample of women living with children in rural New York [49]. | None | None | Wehler et al. 2004 [52] |
Household Food Security Survey Module | An 18-item measure developed by the United States Department of Agriculture [8] and used to monitor household food security in the US and Canada. Measures the food security status of a household in the last 12 months. Items ask an adult respondent about anxiety related to the household food supply, running out of food, providing inadequately nutritious food, and substitutions or restrictions in food consumption by adults and/or children in the household due to lack of financial resources. Items are compiled to form a continuous, linear scale that categorizes households into one of four groups; food secure, marginal food secure, low food secure, and very low food secure [8]. Data from the HFSSM have been compared to household food expenditures and income [8] and dietary intakes [14], supporting its validity in capturing constrained food access due to inadequate financial resources. | Six-item short form: uses a subset of the 18-item survey. Does not characterize severe food insecurity and does not contain child-specific items. 10-item adult scale: includes only items referenced to adults in the household. Health Canada modifications: Refers to low food security as “moderate food insecurity” and very low food security as “severe food insecurity”. Less stringent than USDA coding, in that 2+ affirmative responses place an individual into a food insecure category. | Bronte-Tinkew et al. 2007 [53]; Casey et al. 2004 [54]; Chilton et al. 2013 [28]; Corman et al. 2016 [24]; Garg et al. 2015 [25]; Hanson et al. 2012 [15]; Hernandez et al. 2014 [26]; Huddleston-Casas et al. 2009 [55]; Laraia et al. 2006 [56]; Laraia et al. 2015 [27]; Lent et al. 2009 [45]; McCurdy et al. 2015 [29]; Sun et al. 2016 [30]; Trapp et al. 2015 [31] Health Canada coding: Muldoon et al. 2013 [32]; Tarasuk et al. 2013 [16] | Dressler et al. 2015 [37]; Kaiser et al. 2007 [57]; Laraia et al. 2009 [58]; Martin et al. 2016 [17] (Health Canada coding); Mathews et al. 2010 [34]; Peterman et al. 2013 [38]; Sharpe et al. 2016 [39]; Whitaker et al. 2006 [59]; 15-item adaptation for pregnant Latinas: Hromi-Fielder et al. 2011 [36] Other non-standard adaptations (3-, 4-, or 7-items): Ajrouch et al. 2010 [35]; Davey-Rothwell et al. 2014 [40]; Harrison et al. 2008 [60]; Melchior et al. 2009 [44]; Sidebottom et al. 2014 [33] |
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey-III (NHANES-III) food sufficiency indicators | NHANES-III was a health and nutrition survey conducted by the US Center for Disease Control (CDC). A food sufficiency component was included in the in-home adult questionnaire. Respondents were classified as “food insecure” if they “sometimes” or “often” did not have enough food to eat. Other questions included how many days in the prior month the respondent did not have money for food, reasons for not having enough food, and whether the respondent or child in the household had restricted their food intake due to lack of food [61]. | None | Heflin et al. 2005 [62]; Siefert et al. 2007 [63]; Siefert et al. 2001 [64] | None |
New Zealand measure of individual deprivation (NZiDep) | An 8-item scale measuring individual socioeconomic deprivation, specific to New Zealand. The scale has been validated among Maori, Pacific, and White New Zealand citizens [65]; criterion validity relied upon associations with tobacco smoking. Includes three-item composite measure of food security: “In the last 12 months have you personally made use of special food grants or food banks because you did not have enough money for food?” (yes/no), “In the last 12 months have you personally been forced to buy cheaper food so that you could pay for other things you needed?” (yes/no), “In the last 12 months have you personally gone without fresh fruit and vegetables often so that you could pay for other things you needed?” (yes/no). | Carter et al. 2011 [43] | None | |
Radimer–Cornell scale | A 12-item scale developed by Radimer et al. [47] at Cornell University based on qualitative research with low-income women. Twelve items cover aspects of household, adult, and child food insecurity. The content of the items address food anxiety, monotony of diet, financial constraints, food restriction, insufficient intake, and acquiring food in socially acceptable ways [47,66]. Shown to have good specificity and sensitivity compared to evaluations of food security status based on household food inventories, dietary recall data, and other measures among a sample of women living with children in rural New York [49]. Further information about the evolution of the instrument is available [67]. | Single item | None | Sharkey et al. 2011 [41] |
Other Multi- or Single-Item Measures | Birmingham et al. 2011 [42]; Klesges et al. 2001 [68]; Sharkey et al. 2003 [69] | None |
Measure | Description | Abbreviated Versions | Articles Using Full Version | Articles Using Abbreviated Versions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Center for Epidemiologic Studies, Depression Scale (CES-D) | A 20-item self-report scale measuring depressive symptoms in the general population. Components assess depressed mood, feelings of guilt and worthlessness, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, psychomotor retardation, loss of appetite, and sleep disturbance in the prior week. Validity of the CES-D has been established through correlations with self-reported measures, clinical scores for depression, and other construct validity variables. Reliability and validity has been demonstrated across diverse characteristics of general population samples [71]. | 10-item short form 12-item short form | Ajrouch et al. 2010 [35]; Davey-Rothwell et al. 2014 [40]; Dressler et al. 2015 [37]; Hanson et al. 2012 [15]; Hromi-Fielder et al. 2011 [36]; Huddleston-Casas et al. 2009 [55]; Laraia et al. 2006 [56]; Laraia et al. 2009 [58]; Lent et al. 2009 [45]; McCurdy et al. 2015 [29]; Siefert et al. 2007 [63] | Bronte-Tinkew et al. 2007 [53]; Garg et al. 2015 [25]; Sharpe et al. 2016 [39] |
Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) | A 14-item self-report Likert scale that measures the degree of unpredictability of the respondents’ life and the degree to which the respondent feels stress regarding these situations. Validated in young adult and post-secondary student population, the PSS correlated with physical and mental health related outcomes [77]. | PSS-4 (4-item subset) 10-item short form | Laraia et al. 2006 [56] | Trapp et al. 2015 [31]; Laraia et al. 2015 [27] |
Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) | A structured interview designed for non-clinicians to assess and diagnose psychiatric disorders in respondents according to criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). The DIS has 19 diagnostic modules that cover different types of mental disorders. Within each module, respondents answer whether they have particular symptoms at the present, or have experienced them in the past [78]. | None | Melchior et al. 2009 [44] | None |
Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) | A 10-item self-report scale used to measure risk of postpartum depression in mothers within eight weeks of delivery. Items assess feelings of guilt, sleep deprivation, lack of energy, suicidality, and other general depressive symptoms experienced within the last 7 days. Validity has been examined in a sample of postpartum mothers, 6-weeks post-delivery, and compared with clinician diagnosis of depression [75]. | 3-item short form | None | Birmingham et al. 2011 [42] |
Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) | A 30-item self-report scale that assesses depression in geriatric populations (≥55 years). Items assess motivation, self-esteem, helplessness, mood, and agitation [76]. | 15-item short form | Klesges et al. 2001 [68] | Sharkey et al. 2003 [69] |
Hopkins Symptom Checklist Subscale (HSCL) | A 58-item self-report scale used primarily with psychiatric outpatients, capturing five symptom dimensions including somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, and anxiety [73]. Authors discuss a variety of studies in which the validity of the HSCL has been evaluated. | None | Klesges et al. 2001 [68] | None |
Kemper 3-Item Screen | A 3-item self-report screening tool designed to assess maternal depressive symptoms. Validity examined with English-speaking mothers with children under 6 years of age, demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 88% specificity [74]. | None | Casey et al. 2004 [54]; Chilton et al. 2013 [28]; Sun et al. 2016 [30] | None |
Kessler-10 Scale | A 10-item screen developed for the US National Health Interview Survey. Designed to assess symptoms of general psychological distress through items on level of nervousness, hopelessness, lack of energy, depressive feelings, and worthlessness. Validity was examined with adults living in Australia, aged 18 years and older [79]. | None | Carter et al. 2011 [43] | None |
Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) | A 9-item questionnaire administered in a primary care setting by clinicians, designed to provide a diagnosis of major depressive disorder according to DSM guidelines. Items assess depressive symptoms and anhedonia experienced within the past 2 weeks. Validity was assessed among patients recruited through primary care offices, with 73% sensitivity and 94% specificity [80]. | PHQ-2 (2-item subset) | Harrison et al. 2008 [60]; Sidebottom et al. 2014 [33] | Trapp et al. 2015 [31] |
Pearlin’s Mastery Scale | A 7-item self-report Likert scale that measures the degree of control respondents feel they have over their lives. Authors note validation with individuals aged 18 to 65 years [81]. | None | Heflin et al. 2005 [62]; Laraia et al. 2006 [56] | None |
Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale | A 10-item self-report Likert scale that assesses level of self-esteem in respondents [82]. | None | Laraia et al. 2006 [56]; Laraia et al. 2009 [58] | None |
SF-36 Health Survey | A 36-item health survey that consists of 5 physical health scales and 5 mental health scales. The mental component summary score is calculated from scores on 4 subscales; social functioning, role emotional, vitality, and mental health scales [83]. When tested on individuals 16–74 years of age, the SF-36 demonstrated good construct validity in patient population. Authors noted promise in use with the general population [83] | SF-12 (12-item short form) | Lent et al. 2009 [45] | Mathews et al. 2010 [34] |
Spielberger’s Trait Anxiety Inventory | The Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory is a 20-item tool commonly used to measure anxiety, with higher scores indicating greater levels of anxiety [72]. The American Psychological Association has noted sensitivity of this inventory to predict distress overtime in caregivers [72]. | Laraia et al. 2006 [56] | None | |
World Health Organization World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) | A comprehensive interview designed to diagnose major depressive disorder, other depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and impulse control disorders according to the World Health Organization International Classification of Disease (ICD) and DSM criteria [70]. Evaluation studies suggested good test-retest and interrater reliability, and its use in different settings and countries was deemed acceptable [84]. | CIDI short form (CIDI-SF), also referred to as screening version | None | Corman et al. 2016 [24]; Heflin et al. 2005 [62]; Hernandez et al. 2014 [26]; Martin et al. 2016 [17]; Siefert et al. 2001 [64]; Whitaker et al. 2006 [59] |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Maynard, M.; Andrade, L.; Packull-McCormick, S.; Perlman, C.M.; Leos-Toro, C.; Kirkpatrick, S.I. Food Insecurity and Mental Health among Females in High-Income Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071424
Maynard M, Andrade L, Packull-McCormick S, Perlman CM, Leos-Toro C, Kirkpatrick SI. Food Insecurity and Mental Health among Females in High-Income Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(7):1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071424
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaynard, Merryn, Lesley Andrade, Sara Packull-McCormick, Christopher M. Perlman, Cesar Leos-Toro, and Sharon I. Kirkpatrick. 2018. "Food Insecurity and Mental Health among Females in High-Income Countries" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 7: 1424. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071424