How Older Adults Cope with Cognitive Complexity and Environmental Constraints during Dual-Task Walking: The Role of Executive Function Involvement
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Procedures
2.1.1. Cognitive Assessment in ST and DT
2.1.2. Gait Assessment in ST and DT
2.1.3. Computation of DT Effects for Cognitive and Gait Variables
2.1.4. Assessment of Covariates
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Dual Task Effects on Gait Performance
3.2.1. Effects of Environmental Constraints on Gait
3.2.2. Effects of Cognitive Complexity on Gait
3.2.3. Interactive Effects of Environmental Constraints and Cognitive Demands on Gait
3.3. Dual-Task Effects on Cognitive Performance
3.4. Prediction of Dual-Task Effects by Physical Activity Level
4. Discussion
4.1. Reciprocal Dual-Task Effects and Task Prioritization
4.2. Dual-Task Effects on Gait: Influence of Physical Activity
4.3. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gender Female (n) Male (n) | 72 (54%) 63 (46%) |
Height (cm) | 165.0 ± 90.0 |
Body mass (kg) | 72.4 ±12.6 |
BMI (kg/h2) | 26.5 ± 3.5 |
Daily steps (mean ± SD) | 10,669 ± 3671 |
Educational level <High school (n) High school (n) College (n) | 35 (26%) 66 (49%) 34 (25%) |
Drugs (mean ± SD) | 2.8 ± 2.7 |
Diseases (mean ± SD) | 2.4 ± 2.3 |
Retirement Yes (n) No (n) | 99 (73%) 36 (27%) |
Smoking No (n) In the past (n) Yes (n) | 69 (51%) 49 (36%) 17 (13%) |
Alcohol No (n) Occasionally (n) | 50 (37%) 85 (63%) |
SF-12 PCS (pts) MCS (pts) | 52.2 ± 7.1 51.5 ± 9.1 |
Delta Trail Making (s) | 49.0 ± 40.6 |
Environmental Constraints on Walking | Cognitive Task Demands | |||
Single Tasking | Low | High | Low | High |
(1) Flat walking | (2) Obstructed walking | (3) Backward counting | (4) Random number generation | |
Environmental Constraint | Cognitive Demands | |||
Dual Tasking | Low–Low | Low–High | High–Low | High–High |
(5) Flat walking with BC | (6) Flat walking with RNG | (7) Obstructed walking with BC | (8) Obstructed walking with RNG |
Working Memory Updating | |
---|---|
Redundancy | Index reflecting the unbalance of response alternative frequencies in a sequence of generated numbers based on the theoretical frequencies of each digit |
Coupon | Index of the mean number of responses given before all the alternative responses are used |
Mean Repetition Gap | Index of the average quantity of digits between successive occurrences of the same number calculated for all digits throughout the whole sequence |
Inhibition | |
Turning Point Index | Index of the similarity between the real frequencies of changes between ascending and descending series of numbers and their theoretical frequency in random responses |
Runs | Index of variability of the number of digits in successive ascending or descending runs |
Adjacency | Index of the relative frequency of pairs of adjacent ascending or descending numbers |
Single Task | Dual TaskBC | Dual TaskRNG | DTEBC % | DTERNG % | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flat walking | Mean Speed (m/s) | 1.35 ± 0.19 | 1.38 ± 0.22 | 1.13 ± 0.28 | 2.83 ± 12.64 | −16.44 ± 16.30 |
CV Speed (sd/mean × 100) | 3.53 ± 1.20 | 4.27 ± 2.36 | 6.19 ± 5.83 | 29.65 ± 79.40 | 88.96 ± 198.80 | |
Mean Stride length (m) | 0.85 ± 0.08 | 0.86 ± 0.08 | 0.79 ± 0.08 | 1.69 ± 6.13 | −7.07 ± 6.39 | |
CV Stride length (sd/mean × 100) | 2.98 ± 1.44 | 3.85 ± 2.59 | 3.69 ± 1.56 | 39.69 ± 94.82 | 33.85 ± 58.61 | |
Ostacle walking | Mean Speed (m/s) | 1.15 ± 0.16 | 1.19 ± 0.19 | 1.04 ± 0.21 | 3.56 ± 11.13 | −9.17 ± 12.31 |
CV Speed (sd/mean × 100) | 12.59 ± 4.30 | 13.23 ± 5.31 | 13.06 ± 4.53 | 11.42 ± 74.16 | 7.75 ± 31.31 | |
Mean Stride length (m) | 0.84 ± 0.07 | 0.85 ± 0.07 | 0.82 ± 0.08 | 1.65 ± 5.84 | −3.18 ± 5.19 | |
CV Stride length (sd/mean × 100) | 9.60 ± 7.38 | 8.48 ± 2.72 | 8.70 ± 2.19 | −0.66 ± 43.70 | 1.02 ± 35.93 |
Single Task | Dual Taskflat | Dual Taskobstacle | DTEflat | DTEobstacle | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Working Memory span (std score) | 0.15 ± 1.17 | 0.03 ± 0.90 | −0.18 ± 0.89 | −0.12 ± 0.95 | −0.33 ± 1.39 |
Working Memory updating (std score) | 0.12 ± 0.74 | −0.057 ± 0.91 | -0.06 ± 0.70 | −0.17 ± 0.93 | −0.18 ± 0.77 |
Inhibition (std score) | 0.26 ± 0.51 | −0.31 ± 0.99 | 0.44 ± 0.56 | −0.57 ± 1.02 | 0.22 ± 0.74 |
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Forte, R.; Pesce, C.; Di Baldassarre, A.; Shea, J.; Voelcker-Rehage, C.; Capranica, L.; Condello, G. How Older Adults Cope with Cognitive Complexity and Environmental Constraints during Dual-Task Walking: The Role of Executive Function Involvement. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101835
Forte R, Pesce C, Di Baldassarre A, Shea J, Voelcker-Rehage C, Capranica L, Condello G. How Older Adults Cope with Cognitive Complexity and Environmental Constraints during Dual-Task Walking: The Role of Executive Function Involvement. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(10):1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101835
Chicago/Turabian StyleForte, Roberta, Caterina Pesce, Angela Di Baldassarre, John Shea, Claudia Voelcker-Rehage, Laura Capranica, and Giancarlo Condello. 2019. "How Older Adults Cope with Cognitive Complexity and Environmental Constraints during Dual-Task Walking: The Role of Executive Function Involvement" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 10: 1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101835
APA StyleForte, R., Pesce, C., Di Baldassarre, A., Shea, J., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Capranica, L., & Condello, G. (2019). How Older Adults Cope with Cognitive Complexity and Environmental Constraints during Dual-Task Walking: The Role of Executive Function Involvement. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101835