Association between Breakfast Frequency and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk: A Cross-Sectional Study of KNHANES Data, 2014–2016
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection and Participants
2.2. Dependent Variable
2.3. Independent Variable
2.4. Control Variables
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Study Population
3.2. Association between Breakfast Frequency and ASCVD Risk
3.3. Association between ASCVD High-Risk and Breakfast Frequency Stratified by Sex and Family History
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total | ASCVD Risk | p-Value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High-Risk | Normal | ||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
Breakfasts per week | <0.0001 | ||||||
5–7 times | 5589 | 77.6 | 2,414 | 43.2 | 3175 | 56.8 | |
3–4 times | 597 | 8.3 | 137 | 22.9 | 460 | 77.1 | |
1–2 times | 425 | 5.9 | 66 | 15.5 | 359 | 84.5 | |
0 times | 594 | 8.2 | 169 | 28.5 | 425 | 71.5 | |
Sex | <0.0001 | ||||||
Male | 2916 | 40.5 | 1726 | 59.2 | 1190 | 40.8 | |
Female | 4289 | 59.5 | 1060 | 24.7 | 3229 | 75.3 | |
Age | <0.0001 | ||||||
40-49 | 2158 | 30.0 | 154 | 7.1 | 2004 | 92.9 | |
50-59 | 2189 | 30.4 | 524 | 23.9 | 1665 | 76.1 | |
>60 | 2858 | 39.7 | 2108 | 73.8 | 750 | 26.2 | |
Marital status | <0.0001 | ||||||
Married | 5930 | 82.3 | 2164 | 36.5 | 3766 | 63.5 | |
Single, separated, or divorced | 1275 | 17.7 | 622 | 48.8 | 653 | 51.2 | |
Educational level | <0.0001 | ||||||
Middle school or less | 2757 | 38.3 | 1545 | 56.0 | 1212 | 44.0 | |
High school | 2385 | 33.1 | 699 | 29.3 | 1686 | 70.7 | |
College or over | 2063 | 28.6 | 542 | 26.3 | 1521 | 73.7 | |
Household income level | <0.0001 | ||||||
Low | 1298 | 18.0 | 823 | 63.4 | 475 | 36.6 | |
Lower middle | 1810 | 25.1 | 796 | 44.0 | 1014 | 56.0 | |
Upper middle | 1909 | 26.5 | 577 | 30.2 | 1332 | 69.8 | |
High | 2188 | 30.4 | 590 | 27.0 | 1598 | 73.0 | |
Occupation | <0.0001 | ||||||
White collar | 1415 | 19.6 | 316 | 22.3 | 1099 | 77.7 | |
Pink collar | 1008 | 14.0 | 203 | 20.1 | 805 | 79.9 | |
Blue collar | 2033 | 28.2 | 957 | 47.1 | 1076 | 52.9 | |
Unemployed or other | 2749 | 38.2 | 1310 | 47.7 | 1439 | 52.3 | |
Region | <0.0001 | ||||||
Urban area | 4472 | 62.1 | 1647 | 36.8 | 2825 | 63.2 | |
Rural area | 2733 | 37.9 | 1139 | 41.7 | 1594 | 58.3 | |
Alcohol status | <0.0001 | ||||||
Non-drinker | 1003 | 13.9 | 480 | 47.9 | 523 | 52.1 | |
Other | 6202 | 86.1 | 2306 | 37.2 | 3896 | 62.8 | |
Perceived stress level | <0.0001 | ||||||
Low | 5608 | 77.8 | 2284 | 40.7 | 3324 | 59.3 | |
High | 1597 | 22.2 | 502 | 31.4 | 1095 | 68.6 | |
Perceived health status | 0.0016 | ||||||
Good | 2116 | 29.4 | 821 | 38.8 | 1295 | 61.2 | |
Normal | 3752 | 52.1 | 1394 | 37.2 | 2358 | 62.8 | |
Bad | 1337 | 18.6 | 571 | 42.7 | 766 | 57.3 | |
Physical activity | 0.0001 | ||||||
High | 1173 | 16.3 | 393 | 33.5 | 780 | 66.5 | |
Moderate | 2990 | 41.5 | 1158 | 38.7 | 1832 | 61.3 | |
Low | 3042 | 42.2 | 1235 | 40.6 | 1807 | 59.4 | |
BMI (kg/m2) | <0.0001 | ||||||
Underweight or Normal (<22.9) | 2810 | 39.0 | 953 | 33.9 | 1857 | 66.1 | |
Overweight (23.0–24.9) | 1861 | 25.8 | 768 | 41.3 | 1093 | 58.7 | |
Obesity (>25.0) | 2534 | 35.2 | 1065 | 42.0 | 1469 | 58.0 | |
Family history | 0.0010 | ||||||
No | 5539 | 76.9 | 2199 | 39.7 | 3340 | 60.3 | |
Yes | 1666 | 23.1 | 587 | 35.2 | 1079 | 64.8 | |
Nutritional status | <0.0001 | ||||||
Good | 5284 | 73.3 | 1924 | 36.4 | 3360 | 63.6 | |
Poor | 1921 | 26.7 | 862 | 44.9 | 1059 | 55.1 | |
Calorie intake (kcal/day) * | 1973.6 | 861.5 | 1995.1 | 853.5 | 1960.0 | 866.3 | <0.0001 |
Fat intake (g/day) * | 39.5 | 31.6 | 35.4 | 29.2 | 42.1 | 32.8 | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrate intake (g/day) * | 313.7 | 127.7 | 325.7 | 133.1 | 306.0 | 123.6 | <0.0001 |
Year | 0.7889 | ||||||
2014 | 2203 | 30.6 | 850 | 38.6 | 1353 | 61.4 | |
2015 | 2481 | 34.4 | 972 | 39.2 | 1509 | 60.8 | |
2016 | 2521 | 35.0 | 964 | 38.2 | 1557 | 61.8 | |
Total | 7205 | 100.0 | 2786 | 38.7 | 4419 | 61.3 |
Variables | Total | |
---|---|---|
Adjusted OR * | 95% CI | |
Breakfasts per week | ||
5–7 times | 1.00 | - |
3–4 times | 1.06 | (0.81–1.39) |
1–2 times | 0.78 | (0.55–1.11) |
0 times | 1.46 | (1.12–1.89) |
Sex | ||
Male | 1.00 | - |
Female | 0.06 | (0.05–0.07) |
Age | ||
40–49 | 0.02 | (0.01–0.02) |
50–59 | 0.09 | (0.08–0.11) |
>60 | 1.00 | - |
Marital status | ||
Married | 1.00 | - |
Single, separated, or divorced | 1.50 | (1.26–1.78) |
Educational level | ||
Middle school or less | 1.49 | (1.19–1.88) |
High school | 1.21 | (0.99–1.49) |
College or over | 1.00 | - |
Household income level | ||
Low | 1.61 | (1.29–2.03) |
Lower middle | 1.15 | (0.94–1.40) |
Upper middle | 0.98 | (0.81–1.19) |
High | 1.00 | - |
Occupation | ||
White collar | 1.00 | - |
Pink collar | 0.83 | (0.63–1.11) |
Blue collar | 0.98 | (0.77–1.25) |
Unemployed or other | 1.56 | (1.22–1.99) |
Region | ||
Urban area | 1.00 | - |
Rural area | 1.11 | (0.96–1.28) |
Alcohol status | ||
Non–drinker | 1.00 | - |
Other | 0.76 | (0.63–0.92) |
Perceived stress level | ||
Low | 1.00 | - |
High | 0.97 | (0.83–1.15) |
Perceived health status | ||
Good | 1.00 | - |
Normal | 1.01 | (0.86–1.19) |
Bad | 0.80 | (0.65–0.99) |
Physical activity | ||
High | 1.00 | - |
Moderate | 1.22 | (0.99–1.50) |
Low | 1.40 | (1.14–1.72) |
BMI (kg/m2) | ||
Underweight or Normal (<22.9) | 1.00 | - |
Overweight (23.0–24.9) | 1.11 | (0.93–1.32) |
Obesity (>25.0) | 1.19 | (1.02–1.40) |
Family history | ||
No | 1.00 | - |
Yes | 0.88 | (0.75–1.03) |
Nutritional status | ||
Good | 1.00 | - |
Poor | 1.18 | (0.99–1.41) |
Calorie intake (kcal/day) | 1.00 | (1.00–1.00) |
Fat intake (g/day) | 1.00 | (1.00–1.00) |
Carbohydrate intake (g/day) | 1.00 | (0.99–1.00) |
Year | ||
2014 | 1.04 | (0.88–1.23) |
2015 | 0.98 | (0.83–1.16) |
2016 | 1.00 | - |
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Lee, H.J.; Jang, J.; Lee, S.A.; Choi, D.-W.; Park, E.-C. Association between Breakfast Frequency and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk: A Cross-Sectional Study of KNHANES Data, 2014–2016. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1853. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101853
Lee HJ, Jang J, Lee SA, Choi D-W, Park E-C. Association between Breakfast Frequency and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk: A Cross-Sectional Study of KNHANES Data, 2014–2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(10):1853. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101853
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Hyeon Ji, Jieun Jang, Sang Ah Lee, Dong-Woo Choi, and Eun-Cheol Park. 2019. "Association between Breakfast Frequency and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk: A Cross-Sectional Study of KNHANES Data, 2014–2016" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 10: 1853. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101853