Changes of Atmospheric and Blood Concentrations of Lead and Cadmium in the General Population of South Korea from 2008 to 2017
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Data Collection
2.2. Determination of Lead and Cadmium in Whole Blood
2.3. Environmental Heavy Metal Measurements
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Changes in Blood Lead and Atmospheric Lead Over Time
3.2. Changes in Blood Cadmium and Atmospheric Cadmium over Time
3.3. Relationship of Atmospheric and Blood Levels of Lead and Cadmium in Men and Women
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Classification | Total | Men | Women | |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 16,873) | (n = 8117) | (n = 8756) | ||
Age, NS | <30 | 3011 (25.2) | 1451 (26.4) | 1560 (23.6) |
30–39 | 3258 (20.1) | 1570 (20.6) | 1688 (19.5) | |
40–49 | 3341 (21.4) | 1621 (21.4) | 1720 (21.3) | |
50–59 | 3376 (18.8) | 1612 (18.7) | 1764 (18.9) | |
60≤– | 3887 (14.6) | 1863 (12.9) | 2024 (16.8) | |
Employment* | Manual | 4102 (26.4) | 2319 (29.7) | 1783 (22.4) |
Non-manual | 6397 (38.2) | 3722 (45.2) | 2675 (29.7) | |
Others | 6374 (35.4) | 2076 (25.1) | 4298 (47.9) | |
Smoking* | Non-smoker | 9461 (52) | 1758 (23.8) | 7703 (86.4) |
Past smoker | 3344 (19.7) | 2853 (30.7) | 491 (6.2) | |
Current smoker | 4068 (28.3) | 3506 (45.4) | 562 (7.4) | |
Alcohol* | None | 4274 (21.8) | 1302 (14.3) | 2972 (30.9) |
Mild | 8414 (50.5) | 3493 (44.7) | 4921 (57.6) | |
Moderate | 2004 (12.6) | 1442 (17.1) | 562 (7.2) | |
Heavy | 2181 (15.1) | 1880 (24) | 301 (4.3) | |
Residence, NS | Urban | 13671 (83.4) | 6544 (83) | 7127 (83.9) |
Rural | 3202 (16.6) | 1573 (17) | 1629 (16.1) | |
Outdoor activity | Exercise, NS | 2923 (21.5) | 1395 (21.3) | 1528 (21.9) |
No exercise | 13950 (78.5) | 6722 (78.7) | 7228 (78.1) | |
Regular walk* | 5005 (27.6) | 2608 (30.2) | 2397 (24.5) | |
No regular walk | 11868 (72.4) | 5509 (69.8) | 6359 (75.5) |
Classification | All | p-Value | Year | Changes in Blood Level Relative to Initial Level.(%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2016 | 2017 | |||||
All | 1.95 (1.93–1.97) | - | 2.37 (2.32–2.42) | 2.32 (2.26–2.37) | 2.21 (2.17–2.25) | 2.12 (2.07–2.17) | 1.98 (1.94–2.03) | 1.92 (1.88–1.97) | 1.74 (1.70–1.78) | 1.46 (1.43–1.49) | 61.6 | |
Gender | Men | 2.13 (2.10–2.15) | ** | 2.71 (2.65–2.78) | 2.64 (2.58–2.71) | 2.55 (2.49–2.61) | 2.40 (2.34–2.47) | 2.23 (2.17–2.28) | 2.18 (2.12–2.25) | 1.95 (1.89–2.00) | 1.65 (1.61–1.69) | 60.9 |
Women | 1.74 (1.72–1.77) | 2.00 (1.94–2.06) | 1.97 (1.91–2.04) | 1.86 (1.81–1.90) | 1.82 (1.76–1.88) | 1.73 (1.68–1.79) | 1.65 (1.60–1.71) | 1.51 (1.47–1.55) | 1.25 (1.22–1.28) | 62.5 | ||
Age | <30 | 1.55 (1.53–1.58) | ** | 1.94 (1.86–2.02) | 1.85 (1.77–1.92) | 1.75 (1.68–1.81) | 1.66 (1.60–1.72) | 1.51 (1.46–1.57) | 1.55 (1.47–1.62) | 1.34 (1.27–1.42) | 1.14 (1.09–1.19) | 58.8 |
30–39 | 1.83 (1.80–1.85) | 2.24 (2.15–2.32) | 2.20 (2.12–2.28) | 2.08 (2.01–2.15) | 2.01 (1.93–2.10) | 1.89 (1.82–1.97) | 1.86 (1.80–1.93) | 1.62 (1.56–1.68) | 1.31 (1.26–1.37) | 58.5 | ||
40–49 | 2.04 (2.01–2.07) | 2.49 (2.39–2.59) | 2.47 (2.36–2.59) | 2.38 (2.28–2.49) | 2.23 (2.15–2.32) | 2.09 (2.00–2.19) | 2.05 (1.97–2.13) | 1.82 (1.76–1.89) | 1.56 (1.51–1.62) | 62.7 | ||
50–59 | 2.31 (2.28–2.35) | 2.78 (2.67–2.89) | 2.76 (2.66–2.87) | 2.66 (2.57–2.77) | 2.57 (2.46–2.69) | 2.46 (2.33–2.59) | 2.29 (2.20–2.38) | 2.13 (2.06–2.21) | 1.78 (1.72–1.84) | 64.0 | ||
60≤ | 2.35 (2.31–2.39) | 2.65 (2.53–2.77) | 2.57 (2.45–2.69) | 2.46 (2.34–2.58) | 2.44 (2.36–2.53) | 2.43 (2.31–2.56) | 2.14 (2.04–2.26) | 2.13 (2.06–2.20) | 1.80 (1.74–1.87) | 67.9 | ||
Employment | Manual | 1.99 (1.97–2.02) | ** | 2.71 (2.62–2.79) | 2.60 (2.52–2.69) | 2.46 (2.39–2.53) | 2.39 (2.31–2.48) | 2.19 (2.11–2.28) | 2.14 (2.07–2.21) | 1.92 (1.86–1.98) | 1.64 (1.59–1.69) | 60.5 |
Non-manual | 1.95 (1.93–1.98) | 2.22 (2.12–2.32) | 2.26 (2.18–2.34) | 2.11 (2.05–2.18) | 2.00 (1.93–2.08) | 1.95 (1.88–2.02) | 1.85 (1.78–1.92) | 1.69 (1.64–1.75) | 1.33 (1.29–1.37) | 59.9 | ||
Others | 1.89 (1.87–1.92) | 2.18 (2.11–2.24) | 2.10 (2.03–2.17) | 2.03 (1.97–2.09) | 1.92 (1.85–1.98) | 1.79 (1.72–1.87) | 1.74 (1.67–1.80) | 1.60 (1.55–1.65) | 1.38 (1.34–1.42) | 63.3 | ||
Smoking | Non-smoker | 1.88 (1.86–1.91) | ** | 2.06 (2.00–2.12) | 2.03 (1.97–2.10) | 1.94 (1.89–1.99) | 1.89 (1.82–1.95) | 1.75 (1.69–1.80) | 1.72 (1.67–1.77) | 1.54 (1.50–1.58) | 1.29 (1.26–1.33) | 62.6 |
Past smoker | 1.94 (1.91–1.97) | 2.66 (2.56–2.76) | 2.55 (2.44–2.65) | 2.47 (2.37–2.58) | 2.40 (2.30–2.50) | 2.21 (2.11–2.31) | 2.12 (2.03–2.22) | 1.96 (1.90–2.03) | 1.62 (1.56–1.68) | 60.9 | ||
Current smoker | 2.07 (2.04–2.10) | 2.82 (2.72–2.91) | 2.75 (2.66–2.84) | 2.60 (2.52–2.68) | 2.41 (2.33-2.51) | 2.33 (2.25–2.41) | 2.21 (2.12–2.30) | 1.98 (1.90–2.05) | 1.69 (1.63–1.75) | 59.9 | ||
Alcohol | None | 1.82 (1.80–1.85) | ** | 2.20 (2.11–2.29) | 2.15 (2.07–2.24) | 2.10 (2.01–2.20) | 2.03 (1.94–2.12) | 1.88 (1.80–1.97) | 1.86 (1.78–1.95) | 1.67 (1.61–1.72) | 1.42 (1.36–1.48) | 64.5 |
Mild | 1.89 (1.87–1.91) | 2.23 (2.17–2.29) | 2.16 (2.09–2.23) | 2.05 (2.00–2.10) | 1.98 (1.92–2.04) | 1.80 (1.75–1.85) | 1.77 (1.72–1.82) | 1.61 (1.56–1.66) | 1.36 (1.33–1.39) | 61.0 | ||
Moderate | 2.09 (2.05–2.13) | 2.66 (2.53–2.79) | 2.66 (2.53–2.79) | 2.54 (2.43–2.66) | 2.36 (2.21–2.51) | 2.28 (2.17–2.40) | 2.10 (1.98–2.22) | 1.96 (1.86–2.06) | 1.59 (1.51–1.68) | 59.8 | ||
Heavy | 2.21 (2.17–2.25) | 2.96 (2.83–3.09) | 2.91 (2.79–3.04) | 2.66 (2.55–2.78) | 2.60 (2.48–2.72) | 2.60 (2.47–2.74) | 2.48 (2.35–2.63) | 2.17 (2.08–2.26) | 1.79 (1.71–1.87) | 60.5 | ||
Residence | Urban | 1.94 (1.92–1.95) | * | 2.35 (2.29–2.40) | 2.29 (2.23–2.34) | 2.18 (2.14–2.22) | 2.07 (2.03–2.12) | 1.96 (1.92–2.01) | 1.89 (1.85–1.94) | 1.71 (1.67–1.75) | 1.43 (1.40–1.46) | 60.9 |
Rural | 1.99 (1.94–2.03) | 2.48 (2.39–2.59) | 2.46 (2.32–2.61) | 2.35 (2.24–2.47) | 2.37 (2.19–2.56) | 2.08 (1.96–2.20) | 2.10 (1.93–2.27) | 1.89 (1.80–1.99) | 1.59 (1.50–1.69) | 64.1 | ||
Outdoor activity | Exercise | 1.94 (1.92–1.97) | NS | 2.41 (2.32–2.50) | 2.36 (2.29–2.44) | 2.20 (2.13–2.27) | 2.11 (2.02–2.21) | 1.99 (1.90–2.09) | 1.97 (1.88–2.05) | 1.71 (1.65–1.77) | 1.46 (1.41–1.51) | 60.6 |
No exercise | 1.95 (1.93–1.96) | 2.36 (2.30–2.41) | 2.31 (2.24–2.37) | 2.21 (2.17–2.26) | 2.12 (2.07–2.17) | 1.98 (1.93–2.03) | 1.91 (1.86–1.97) | 1.75 (1.71–1.79) | 1.46 (1.42–1.49) | 61.9 | ||
Regular walk | 1.93 (1.91–1.96) | NS | 2.30 (2.24–2.37) | 2.28 (2.22–2.35) | 2.20 (2.13–2.26) | 2.08 (2.02–2.14) | 1.93 (1.86–1.99) | 1.88 (1.82–1.94) | 1.70 (1.65–1.76) | 1.44 (1.40–1.49) | 62.6 | |
No regular walk | 1.95 (1.93–1.97) | 2.42 (2.36–2.48) | 2.33 (2.27–2.40) | 2.21 (2.16–2.26) | 2.14 (2.08–2.20) | 2.02 (1.96–2.07) | 1.95 (1.89–2.01) | 1.77 (1.73–1.81) | 1.47 (1.44–1.51) | 60.7 | ||
Menopause (women in their 50s) | Yes (n = 1394) | 2.08 (2.03–2.13) | ** | 2.45 (2.29–2.62) | 2.42 (2.25–2.60) | 2.30 (2.17–2.44) | 2.27 (2.15–2.40) | 2.26 (2.09–2.43) | 2.16 (2.04–2.28) | 1.96 (1.86–2.05) | 1.57 (1.49–1.65) | 75.5 |
No (n = 370) | 1.92 (1.83–2.01) | 2.59 (2.37–2.83) | 2.56 (2.34–2.79) | 2.06 (1.81–2.34) | 2.09 (1.80–2.42) | 1.87 (1.66–2.10) | 1.79 (1.57–2.04) | 1.71 (1.56–1.86) | 1.36 (1.24–1.50) | 70.8 |
Classification | All | p-Value | Year | Changes in Blood Level Relative to Initial Level.(%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2016 | 2017 | |||||
All | 0.87 (0.86–0.88) | 0.88 (0.85–0.92) | 0.91 (0.87–0.95) | 0.97 (0.94–1.00) | 0.95 (0.92–0.98) | 0.91 (0.88–0.94) | 0.80 (0.77–0.82) | 0.87 (0.84–0.89) | 0.72 (0.70–0.74) | 81.8 | ||
Gender | Men | 0.73 (0.72–0.75) | ** | 0.80 (0.76–0.84) | 0.83 (0.79–0.87) | 0.88 (0.85–0.91) | 0.87 (0.83–0.90) | 0.83 (0.80–0.87) | 0.74 (0.71–0.77) | 0.80 (0.77–0.83) | 0.64 (0.62–0.67) | 80.0 |
Women | 1.07 (1.05–1.09) | 1.00 (0.96–1.05) | 1.01 (0.96–1.06) | 1.08 (1.04–1.13) | 1.06 (1.02–1.10) | 1.02 (0.98–1.06) | 0.88 (0.85–0.91) | 0.96 (0.92–0.99) | 0.83 (0.80–0.86) | 83.0 | ||
Age | <30 | 0.57 (0.55–0.58) | ** | 0.55 (0.51–0.59) | 0.57 (0.53–0.62) | 0.64 (0.60–0.67) | 0.61 (0.57–0.65) | 0.57 (0.54–0.61) | 0.50 (0.47–0.53) | 0.54 (0.50–0.58) | 0.42 (0.39–0.45) | 76.4 |
30–39 | 0.77 (0.76–0.79) | 0.84 (0.78–0.91) | 0.83 (0.77–0.89) | 0.89 (0.84–0.94) | 0.86 (0.81–0.91) | 0.82 (0.78–0.87) | 0.72 (0.68–0.76) | 0.74 (0.70–0.78) | 0.60 (0.57–0.64) | 71.4 | ||
40–49 | 1.02 (1.00–1.04) | 1.01 (0.96–1.07) | 1.06 (1.00–1.12) | 1.16 (1.10–1.22) | 1.11 (1.06–1.16) | 1.09 (1.03–1.16) | 0.94 (0.89–0.99) | 1.01 (0.96–1.05) | 0.89 (0.84–0.94) | 88.1 | ||
50–59 | 1.14 (1.12–1.16) | 1.16 (1.09–1.23) | 1.23 (1.16–1.30) | 1.23 (1.16–1.29) | 1.24 (1.17–1.31) | 1.20 (1.15–1.25) | 1.05 (0.99–1.10) | 1.19 (1.14–1.25) | 1.00 (0.96–1.05) | 86.2 | ||
60≤ | 1.20 (1.18–1.23) | 1.22 (1.15–1.29) | 1.22 (1.16–1.29) | 1.22 (1.17–1.28) | 1.25 (1.19–1.32) | 1.24 (1.18–1.30) | 1.15 (1.10–1.21) | 1.25 (1.21–1.30) | 1.08 (1.04–1.13) | 88.5 | ||
Employment | Manual | 0.88 (0.86–0.89) | ** | 1.02 (0.96–1.09) | 1.04 (0.99–1.10) | 1.02 (0.98–1.07) | 1.05 (1.00–1.11) | 1.01 (0.96–1.06) | 0.87 (0.83–0.92) | 0.94 (0.90–0.98) | 0.80 (0.76–0.84) | 78.4 |
Non-manual | 0.85 (0.83–0.87) | 0.74 (0.70–0.79) | 0.78 (0.72–0.85) | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) | 0.81 (0.77–0.85) | 0.76 (0.72–0.81) | 0.71 (0.68–0.75) | 0.74 (0.71–0.78) | 0.60 (0.57–0.63) | 81.1 | ||
Others | 0.88 (0.86–0.89) | 0.91 (0.86–0.95) | 0.93 (0.87–0.98) | 0.96 (0.91–1.01) | 0.96 (0.92–1.01) | 0.93 (0.88–0.98) | 0.77 (0.73–0.81) | 0.87 (0.83–0.90) | 0.73 (0.70–0.76) | 80.2 | ||
Smoking | Non-smoker | 0.75 (0.74–0.76) | ** | 0.84 (0.81-0.88) | 0.86 (0.81–0.90) | 0.92 (0.88–0.96) | 0.91 (0.88–0.94) | 0.89 (0.85–0.93) | 0.74 (0.72–0.77) | 0.83 (0.80–0.85) | 0.67 (0.65–0.69) | 79.8 |
Past smoker | 0.80 (0.78–0.82) | 0.76 (0.71–0.81) | 0.77 (0.71–0.83) | 0.86 (0.81–0.91) | 0.78 (0.74–0.82) | 0.80 (0.76–0.84) | 0.72 (0.67–0.76) | 0.78 (0.75–0.82) | 0.64 (0.61–0.68) | 84.2 | ||
Current smoker | 1.21 (1.18–1.24) | 1.06 (1.00–1.12) | 1.15 (1.09–1.21) | 1.15 (1.10–1.21) | 1.16 (1.11–1.22) | 1.07 (1.02–1.13) | 0.98 (0.93–1.03) | 1.00 (0.94–1.06) | 0.90 (0.85–0.94) | 84.9 | ||
Alcohol | None | 0.86 (0.85–0.88) | ** | 0.98 (0.93–1.04) | 1.03 (0.97–1.10) | 1.06 (1.00–1.13) | 1.08 (1.02–1.14) | 1.00 (0.95–1.06) | 0.93 (0.87–0.99) | 1.01 (0.97–1.05) | 0.85 (0.82–0.90) | 86.7 |
Mild | 0.84 (0.83–0.86) | 0.81 (0.78–0.85) | 0.84 (0.79–0.89) | 0.92 (0.88–0.95) | 0.85 (0.82–0.89) | 0.86 (0.82–0.89) | 0.72 (0.69–0.75) | 0.79 (0.76–0.82) | 0.65 (0.63–0.67) | 80.2 | ||
Moderate | 0.89 (0.86–0.91) | 0.87 (0.79–0.97) | 0.88 (0.81–0.95) | 0.95 (0.89–1.01) | 0.98 (0.90–1.07) | 0.90 (0.83–0.97) | 0.84 (0.78–0.92) | 0.83 (0.79–0.88) | 0.73 (0.68–0.78) | 83.9 | ||
Heavy | 0.95 (0.93–0.98) | 1.01 (0.94–1.09) | 1.04 (0.97–1.12) | 1.01 (0.94–1.08) | 1.08 (1.00–1.16) | 1.00 (0.93–1.07) | 0.90 (0.84–0.96) | 0.97 (0.91–1.03) | 0.80 (0.75–0.85) | 79.2 | ||
Residence | Urban | 0.87 (0.86–0.88) | NS | 0.86 (0.83–0.90) | 0.90 (0.86–0.95) | 0.96 (0.93–0.99) | 0.92 (0.89–0.95) | 0.88 (0.85–0.91) | 0.79 (0.76–0.81) | 0.85 (0.82–0.88) | 0.71 (0.69–0.73) | 82.6 |
Rural | 0.88 (0.85–0.91) | 1.00 (0.91–1.09) | 0.93 (0.86–1.01) | 1.02 (0.94–1.10) | 1.09 (1.00–1.20) | 1.03 (0.96–1.11) | 0.85 (0.80–0.91) | 0.96 (0.90–1.02) | 0.82 (0.77–0.86) | 82.0 | ||
Outdoor activity | Exercise | 0.85 (0.83–0.86) | * | 0.84 (0.79–0.89) | 0.86 (0.80–0.92) | 0.87 (0.82–0.93) | 0.91 (0.85–0.96) | 0.87 (0.81–0.94) | 0.74 (0.69–0.79) | 0.76 (0.72–0.79) | 0.63 (0.60–0.66) | 75.0 |
No exercise | 0.88 (0.87–0.89) | 0.90 (0.87–0.94) | 0.93 (0.89–0.97) | 1.01 (0.97–1.04) | 0.97 (0.94–1.00) | 0.93 (0.90–0.96) | 0.82 (0.80–0.85) | 0.91 (0.88–0.94) | 0.76 (0.74–0.78) | 84.4 | ||
Regular walk | 0.86 (0.85–0.87) | * | 0.81 (0.78–0.85) | 0.83 (0.79–0.88) | 0.88 (0.85–0.92) | 0.89 (0.85–0.93) | 0.85 (0.82–0.89) | 0.76 (0.73–0.80) | 0.83 (0.80–0.86) | 0.69 (0.66–0.72) | 85.2 | |
No regular walk | 0.88 (0.87–0.89) | 0.93 (0.90–0.98) | 0.96 (0.92–1.01) | 1.02 (0.99–1.06) | 0.98 (0.95–1.02) | 0.94 (0.91–0.98) | 0.82 (0.79–0.85) | 0.90 (0.87–0.93) | 0.75 (0.73–0.78) | 80.6 | ||
Menopause (women in their 50s) | Yes (n = 1394) | 1.29 (1.25–1.32) | ** | 1.31 (1.19–1.45) | 1.36 (1.23–1.50) | 1.40 (1.29–1.51) | 1.38 (1.28–1.49) | 1.45 (1.37–1.54) | 1.16 (1.09–1.24) | 1.29 (1.22–1.36) | 1.09 (1.02–1.17) | 83.2 |
No (n = 370) | 1.44 (1.36–1.52) | 1.42 (1.28–1.57) | 1.53 (1.35–1.72) | 1.38 (1.16–1.64) | 1.67 (1.32–2.11) | 1.51 (1.24–1.84) | 1.20 (1.06–1.36) | 1.44 (1.26–1.64) | 1.38 (1.21–1.56) | 97.2 |
Classification | Men (n = 3764) | Women (n = 4135) | All | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Blood Lead | Blood Cadmium | Blood Lead | Blood Cadmium | Blood Lead | Blood Cadmium | ||
Per doubling of air concentration | 0.08 (−0.01 to 0.16) | −0.02 (−0.08 to 0.04) | 0.10 (0.03 to 0.17) | 0.00 (−0.05 to 0.055) | 0.09 (0.03 to 0.15) | −0.01 (−0.05 to 0.03) | |
Gender | Men | - | - | - | - | Reference | Reference |
Women | −0.40 (−0.47 to −0.34) | 0.31 (0.28 to 0.35) | |||||
Age | <30 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
30–39 | 0.34 (0.24 to 0.45) | 0.12 (0.07 to 0.20) | 0.15 (0.08 to 0.23) | 0.29 (0.24 to 0.34) | 0.27 (0.20 to 0.34) | 0.20 (0.17 to 0.24) | |
40–49 | 0.66 (0.52 to 0.80) | 0.32 (0.26 to 0.38) | 0.36 (0.27 to 0.45) | 0.66 (0.59 to 0.72) | 0.53 (0.45 to 0.61) | 0.48 (0.44 to 0.52) | |
50–59 | 0.86 (0.73 to 1.00) | 0.47 (0.40 to 0.54) | 0.75 (0.65 to 0.84) | 0.76 (0.68 to 0.84) | 0.82 (0.74 to 0.91) | 0.60 (0.552 to 0.65) | |
60- | 1.04 (0.87 to 1.21) | 0.52 (0.45 to 0.58) | 0.70 (0.60 to 0.81) | 0.89 (0.80 to 0.97) | 0.90 (0.79 to 1.01) | 0.69 (0.64 to 0.74) | |
Smoking status | Non-smoker | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Past smoker | 0.03 (−0.07 to 0.14) | 0.07 (0.02 to 0.11) | 0.02 (−0.12 to 0.16) | −0.03 (−0.10 to 0.04) | 0.06 (−0.02 to 0.1) | −0.03 (−0.07 to 0.01) | |
Current smoker | 0.17 (0.06 to 0.27) | 0.48 (0.42 to 0.53) | 0.11 (−0.03 to 0.26) | 0.25 (0.14 to 0.35) | 0.18 (0.09 to 0.26) | 0.39 (0.35 to 0.44) | |
Alcohol | None | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Mild | 0.06 (−0.05 to 0.17) | −0.02 (−0.07 to 0.04) | 0.10 (0.05 to 0.16) | 0.01 (−0.04 to 0.06) | 0.09 (0.03 to 0.14) | −0.01 (−0.05 to 0.03) | |
Moderate | 0.39 (0.24 to 0.55) | 0.01 (-0.05 to 0.08) | 0.34 (0.22 to 0.46) | 0.08 (−0.02 to 0.17) | 0.39 (0.29 to 0.50) | 0.03 (−0.03 to 0.08) | |
Heavy | 0.50 (0.373 to 0.63) | 0.11 (0.05 to 0.18) | 0.51 (0.30 to 0.72) | 0.14 (0.01 to 0.27) | 0.52 (0.42 to 0.62) | 0.11 (0.06 to 0.17) |
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Ahn, J.; Kim, N.-S.; Lee, B.-K.; Oh, I.; Kim, Y. Changes of Atmospheric and Blood Concentrations of Lead and Cadmium in the General Population of South Korea from 2008 to 2017. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2096. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122096
Ahn J, Kim N-S, Lee B-K, Oh I, Kim Y. Changes of Atmospheric and Blood Concentrations of Lead and Cadmium in the General Population of South Korea from 2008 to 2017. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(12):2096. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122096
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhn, Jaeouk, Nam-Soo Kim, Byung-Kook Lee, Inbo Oh, and Yangho Kim. 2019. "Changes of Atmospheric and Blood Concentrations of Lead and Cadmium in the General Population of South Korea from 2008 to 2017" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 12: 2096. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122096