Environmental Impact of Phosphogypsum-Derived Building Materials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Procedure A
2.1.1. Synthesis
2.1.2. Carbonation Process
2.1.3. Lime Mortar Manufacturing
2.2. Procedure B
2.2.1. Synthesis
2.2.2. Carbonation Process
2.3. Characterization Techniques
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Evolution of Environmental Risk
3.1.1. Evaluation of Major Elements and Trace Elements from the Treatment of PG with a Soda in Solution
3.1.2. Contents of Major and Trace Elements in the Treatment of PG with Aluminium Residue
3.2. Radiological Evolution
3.2.1. Procedure A
3.2.2. Procedure B
3.3. Radiological Risk Indexes
4. Conclusions
4.1. PG
4.2. Procedure A
4.3. Procedure B
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Majority Elements (wt. %) | PG | C_S | PGAS | PGAB |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fe2O3 | nd | nd | nd | 0.01 ± 0.01 |
MnO | nd | nd | nd | nd |
MgO | nd | nd | nd | nd |
CaO | 32 ± 1 | 49 ± 2 | 21 ± 1 | 32 ± 2 |
Na2O | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 12.5 ± 0.6 | 20.5 ± 0.7 | 2.29 ± 0.08 |
K2O | 0.02 ± 0.01 | nd | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 |
TiO2 | nd | nd | nd | nd |
P2O5 | 0.65 ± 0.02 | 1.02 ± 0.01 | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 0.47 ± 0.01 |
SO3 | 46 ± 3 | 13.6 ± 0.2 | 27 ± 2 | 14.4 ± 0.9 |
Cl | nd | nd | nd | nd |
F | nd | nd | nd | nd |
SrO | nd | nd | nd | nd |
BaO | nd | nd | nd | nd |
LOI | 18.4 ± 0.4 | 19.4 ± 0.2 | 14.4 ± 0.2 | 33 ± 0.1 |
Metal | PG (mg/kg) | L_f (mg/L) | Limits Allowed (mg/kg) | TCLP (U S—EPA) | U S—EPA | WHO | EU |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
V | 2.9 ± 0.7 | 0.0161 ± 0.0001 | 97 | 0.05 | |||
Cr | 6.3 ±0.2 | < 0.023 | 92 | 5.0 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Co | <0.6 | <0.0024 | 17.3 | ||||
Ni | <3 | 0.026 ± 0.001 | 47 | 0.02 | 0.02 | ||
Zn | <42 | 0.600 ± 0.007 | 67 | 5.0 | 3.0 | ||
As | <0.6 | 0.0052 ± 0.0004 | 4.8 | 5.0 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Se | <30 | <0.006 | 0.09 | 1.0 | |||
Sr | 360 ± 10 | 1.89 ± 0.03 | 320 | 4.0 | |||
Cd | 1.8 ± 0.4 | 0.0072 ± 0.0007 | 0.09 | 1.0 | 0.005 | 0.003 | 0.005 |
Ba | 37 ± 1 | 0.0433 ± 0.0008 | 628 | 100.0 | 2.0 | 0.30 | |
Pb | 1.8 ± 0.1 | 0.0053 ± 0.0001 | 17 | 5.0 | 0.015 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Th | 1.1 ± 0.2 | <0.0013 | 10.5 | ||||
U | 5 ± 1 | 0.0081 ± 0.0001 | 2.7 |
METAL | C_S (mg/kg) | L_p (mg/L) | Ca_S (mg/kg) | L_c (mg/L) | Mortar (mg/kg) | L_m (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
V | <0.1 | <0.007 | <0.1 | <0.007 | 0.3 ± 0.1 | 0.109 ± 0.001 |
Cr | 13.8 ± 0.2 | 0.083 ± 0.003 | 11.5 ± 0.4 | <0.023 | 9 ± 2 | <0.023 |
Co | 0.275 ± 0.004 | <0.0024 | 0.23 ± 0.01 | 0.0048 ± 0.0002 | 0.165 ± 0.03 | 0.0049 ± 0.0002 |
Ni | 1.80 ± 0.02 | 0.023 ± 0.001 | 2.3 ± 0.1 | 0.046 ± 0.001 | 0.347 ± 0.05 | 0.039 ± 0.001 |
Zn | 10.1 ± 0.2 | 0.67 ± 0.02 | 9.7 ± 0.5 | <0.214 | 9.6 ± 1.2 | <0.221 |
As | 7 ± 2 | <0.002 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | <0.002 | 3.9 ± 1.1 | <0.002 |
Se | 2.36 ± 0.08 | <0.0059 | 2.33±0.08 | <0.006 | 1.2 ± 0.7 | <0.0061 |
Sr | 413 ± 6 | 2.17 ± 0.05 | 353 ± 1 | 3.03 ± 0.04 | 170 ± 20 | 2.31 ± 0.01 |
Cd | 3.37 ± 0.04 | <0.0008 | 3.6 ± 0.1 | <0.0008 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | <0.0008 |
Ba | 83 ± 2 | 0.062 ± 0.002 | 72 ± 1 | 0.1203 ± 0.0009 | 36 ± 2 | 0.0658 ± 0.0004 |
Pb | 3.25 ± 0.05 | 0.0066 ± 0.0003 | 3.5 ± 0.2 | <0.0009 | 1.43 ± 0.04 | <0.0009 |
Th | 1.5 ± 0.2 | <0.0013 | 2.69 ± 0.08 | <0.0013 | 0.32 ± 0.05 | <0.0013 |
U | 10.7 ± 0.3 | <0.0012 | 9.7 ± 0.3 | 0.0508 ± 0.0003 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 0.0302 ± 0.0003 |
Metal | PGAS (mg/kg) | L_k (mg/L) | PGAB (mg/kg) | L_ck (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|
V | 8.0 ± 0.3 | <0.007 | 5.8 ± 0.3 | 0.0225 ± 0.04 |
Cr | 5.3 ± 0.4 | <0.023 | 6.7 ± 0.6 | 0.030 ± 0.004 |
Co | <0.6 | <0.0024 | <0.6 | <0.0024 |
Ni | <3 | 0.0082 ± 0.0003 | <3 | 0.0050 ± 0.0004 |
Zn | <41 | 0.0740 ± 0.0005 | <41 | <0.212 |
As | 1.8 ± 0.8 | <0.002 | 1.4 ± 0.2 | <0.002 |
Se | <30 | <0.006 | <30 | <0.0059 |
Sr | 248 ± 10 | 1.69 ± 0.02 | 345 ± 5 | 1.46 ± 0.1 |
Cd | 1.1 ± 0.2 | <0.0008 | 1.6 ± 0.2 | <0.0008 |
Ba | 27 ± 3 | 0.0344 ± 0.0001 | 36 ± 1 | 0.0024 ± 0.02 |
Pb | 1.5 ± 0.2 | <0.0009 | 1.6 ± 0.1 | <0.0009 |
Th | 0.9 ± 0.1 | <0.0013 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | <0.0013 |
U | 2.5 ± 0.3 | <0.0012 | 2.9 ± 0.2 | <0.0012 |
Sample | 226Ra | 210Pb | 40K | 232Th | 235U |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw Material | |||||
PG (Bq/kg) | (5.68 ± 0.25) 102 | (7.2 ± 0.3)102 | <111 | 4 ± 1 | 19 ± 3 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | 0.65 ± 0.15 (ŋ = 2.3%) | 4.0 ± 1.3(ŋ = 11.2%) | <3 | <1 | <2 |
PG + (Na(OH) | |||||
Dissolution reaction | |||||
C_S (Bq/kg) | (7.0 ± 0.3) 102 | (1.03 ± 0.05) 103 | 16 ± 5 | 8 ± 1 | 28 ± 3 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | <1 | <3 | <3 | <1 | <2 |
Carbonation reaction | |||||
Ca_S (Bq/kg) | (7.9 ± 0.3) 102 | (1.01 ± 0.07) 103 | <65 | 8 ± 1 | 20 ± 4 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | 1.3 ± 0.4 (ŋ = 3.3%) | 2.2 ± 1.1 (ŋ = 4.3%) | <2 | <0.25 | <0.2 |
Mortar production | |||||
Mortar (Bq/kg) | (2.32 ± 0.10) 102 | (3.65 ± 0.17) 102 | 80 ± 17 | 5.6 ± 0.5 | 8 ± 2 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | 0.85 ± 0.25 (ŋ = 7.3%) | 2 ± 1 (ŋ = 11.0%) | <2.5 | <1 | <1 |
PG + Caustic wastes. | |||||
Dissolution reaction | |||||
PGAS (Bq/kg) | (4.45 ± 0.19) 102 | (3.90 ± 0.18) 102 | <61 | 4 ± 1 | 10 ± 2 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | 0.9 ± 0.2 (ŋ = 4.3%) | <3.5 | <4 | <1 | <2 |
Carbonation reaction | |||||
PGAB (Bq/kg) | (4.17 ± 0.17) 102 | (4.1 ± 0.3) 102 | <27 | 5 ± 1 | 10 ± 2 |
TCLP (Bq/L) | 3 ± 1 (ŋ = 14.4%) | <3 | <3 | <1 | <2 |
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Romero-Hermida, M.I.; Flores-Alés, V.; Hurtado-Bermúdez, S.J.; Santos, A.; Esquivias, L. Environmental Impact of Phosphogypsum-Derived Building Materials. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124248
Romero-Hermida MI, Flores-Alés V, Hurtado-Bermúdez SJ, Santos A, Esquivias L. Environmental Impact of Phosphogypsum-Derived Building Materials. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(12):4248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124248
Chicago/Turabian StyleRomero-Hermida, M. I., V. Flores-Alés, S. J. Hurtado-Bermúdez, A. Santos, and L. Esquivias. 2020. "Environmental Impact of Phosphogypsum-Derived Building Materials" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12: 4248. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124248