Next Article in Journal
How Do Hospital Medical and Nursing Managers Perceive Work-Related Strain on Their Employees?
Previous Article in Journal
How Can Work Addiction Buffer the Influence of Work Intensification on Workplace Well-Being? The Mediating Role of Job Crafting
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 17
Issue 13
10.3390/ijerph17134659
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia

by
Paula Lara
1,
Valentina Ramírez
1,
Fernando Castrillón
2 and
Gustavo A. Peñuela
1,*
1
Faculty of Engineering, Pollution Diagnostics and Control Group (GDCON), University of Antioquia, Calle 70 No. 52-21, 050010 Medellin, Colombia
2
Health Authority Entity of Medellín, La Alpujarra Administrative Center of Medellín, Calle 42 No 52-106, 050015 Medellín, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(13), 4659; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134659
Submission received: 1 May 2020 / Revised: 4 June 2020 / Accepted: 19 June 2020 / Published: 28 June 2020
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The quality of water in swimming pools is essential to avoid risks to the health of users. Medellín has more than 1000 public swimming pools, which are supervised by the Medellín Health Authority to monitor and ensure compliance with relevant regulations. The Health Authority has financed several studies related to the quality of drinking and recreational water in Medellín in order to protect consumers and users. One such study involves the evaluation of the presence of disinfection byproducts (DBP). The best known DBPs resulting from disinfection with chlorine are trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs), as well as other minorities such as chloramines or halophenols (HPs). DBPs pose a greater risk in swimming pool water because there is a greater possibility of ingestion, since exposure occurs through several routes at the same time (direct ingestion of water, inhalation of volatile or aerosol solutes, dermal contact and absorption through skin). In the present work, high concentrations of THMs and HAAs were detected in the public swimming pools selected in the study, but the presence of HPs was not detected in the pools.

1. Introduction

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are toxic, bioaccumulative, and carcinogenic, and their formation occurs through the reaction between the disinfectant and organic compounds [1]. There are several disinfection techniques to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms, among which are ultraviolet radiation, solar disinfection, chlorine dioxide, slow filtration, and the use of chemical compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and chlorine compounds. Chlorine compounds are the most commonly used due to their low cost, disinfecting power, residuality, biocidal properties, and easy use [2]. In swimming pool disinfection, the most commonly used in Medellín are sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite [3]. The residual free chlorine is HOCl (hypochlorous acid) and OCl− (hypochlorite), being that HOCl is a much better oxidizing and disinfecting agent than OCl−. The Secretary of Health of Medellín established through Resolution 2018060366702 of 2018, a concentration of residual free chlorine between 1.0–5.0 mg/L for pools. Residual free chlorine generates DBPs [4], which are a group of organic and inorganic compounds formed by reactions between disinfectants and organic matter present in water [5].
Trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) are the most commonly found DBPs in drinking water [4] and in swimming pools [6], but there are other minorities such as chloramines or halophenols. At least 600 DBPs have been identified, including halogenated acetonitriles (HANs), chloral hydrate, halophenols, haloketones, chloropicrin, chloride, and cyanogen bromide [7,8]. In swimming pool waters, greater toxicological effects were found to be associated with halo-acetonitrile (HANs) than with THMs and HAAs [9]. The formation of DBPs depends on factors such as temperature, pH, contact time, inorganic and organic compounds present in the water [10,11], type of organic matter, and concentration of the disinfectant [12]. The type of disinfectant also affects the type of DBPs. Some researchers reported that pools treated with chlorine, ozone/chlorine, and electrochemically generated mixed oxidant (EGMO), produce different total concentrations (sum of THMs, HAAs, and HANs), giving 180, 33, and 140 μg/L, respectively, for each of the three treatments [9].
DBPs pose a higher risk in swimming pools because there is a greater possibility of ingestion, and exposure occurs through several routes at the same time (direct water intake, inhalation of volatile or aerosol solutes, dermal contact, and absorption through skin) [13]. In swimming pools, bathers contribute organic matter [14], generating complex mixtures of DBPs [15] and increasing the concentration of DBPs in the water and air through the continued reaction with disinfecting agents. The highly varied anthropogenic organic load generated by bathers through sweat, urine, fecal residues, skin particles, hair, microorganisms, cosmetics, and other personal care and grooming products produces complex chemical reactions in swimming pool water, forming many DBPs [15]. It should be noted that indoor pools have up to five times more genotoxicity than outdoor pools, possibly because exposure to the open air can increase the volatilization of chemical contaminants, reducing their genotoxicity [9].
Ways to minimize the presence of DBPs include limiting the generation of organic load, for example, by encouraging bathers to take a good shower before entering pools and to not urinate while swimming, managing disinfectants to avoid the generation of DBPs, and performing efficient disinfection treatment, including frequent backwash and shock chlorination [9].
The German standard DIN 19643-1 for pools sets a maximum value of THMs at 20 µg/L of THMs [16], while France establishes a maximum of 100 µg/L for THMs [17]. In Latin America, there are no established maximum values of DBPs in public swimming pools, and studies have not been carried out on the variation of the concentration of DBPs due to the presence of bathers, water temperature, and free residual chlorine concentration.
Medellín is a city with a temperature between 24 °C and 30 °C throughout the year, with a population of more than 2,500,000 inhabitants, and more than 1000 public swimming pools. For this reason, the Health Authority Entity of Medellín applied measures to control many sources of pollution in public pools, for example, rigorously requiring that the pool be isolated from green areas, and that it has showers and a foot washing system. Despite this, the irresponsibility of users in not using the shower to eliminate body fluids, food waste, products such as sunscreen, and foot residues, cause organic matter and microorganisms to enter the pools, increasing the amount of DBPs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Samplings in Selected Public Swimming Pools

The samples were taken by means of point sampling in the pools of six public establishments. One of these establishments (B) occupies 17 hectares, with several pools, facilities for the practice of different athletic disciplines, and a bike path. Another is the Medellín an aquatic complex (C), with a monthly admission of about 45,000 people, and where highly competitive swimmers from Medellín practice.
In each swimming pool, four monitoring sessions were carried out: in times of high influx of bathers, in times of low influx of bathers, on a rainy day, and on a sunny day. Sampling during periods of high and low influx of bathers was scheduled according to the holiday season or weekends.

2.2. Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)

The samples were maintained at 0 °C while being transported in glass containers to the Pollution Diagnostic and Control Group—GDCON laboratory. THMs, HAAs, and HPs analyses were performed using a gas chromatograph with a micro-electron capture detector (micro-ECD). For THMs, the ASTM D6520-06 [18] method was followed, which consists of the extraction of the analytes using a fused silica fiber and subsequent reading with the equipment by thermal desorption. HAAs were analyzed according to EPA method 552.2 [19], involving a liquid–liquid extraction of 40 mL of sample with 4 mL of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and analysis with a capillary gas column (GC primary column—DB-5625). The HP analyses were performed according to the UNE-EN 12,673 [20] gas chromatographic separation method.

2.3. Byproducts Analyzed and Limit of Quantification (QL)

THMs (QL = 5 µg/L is the same for each compound): chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, bromoform.
HAAs (QL = 5 µg/L is the same for each compound): chloroacetic acid, bromoacetic, dichloroacetic, bromochloroacetic, trichloroacetic, dibromoacetic, bromodichloroacetic.
HPs (QL = 17 µg/L is the same for each compound): 2-chlorophenol, 4-chloro-3-methylphenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,6-dichlorophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, 2,3,6-trichlorophenol, 2,3,5-trichlorophenol, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,3,4-trichlorophenol, 3,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, 2,3,6-trichlorophenol, 2,3,5-trichlorophenol, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,3,4-trichlorophenol, 3,4,5-trichlorophenol, 2,6-dibromophenol, 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,5,6-tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,5,6-tetrachlorophenol, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, 2,4,6-tribromophenol, pentachlorophenol.

3. Results

3.1. Results of THM and HAAs Concentration

Table 1 shows the results of the THMs and HAAs; HP byproducts evaluated in the selected public pools were not detected.
Concentrations of THMs were higher in some pools, and HAAs in others. Kanan and Karanfil (2011) reported that the organic matter of pool user bodies exhibited higher formation potentials of HAAs than THMs [14].
The concentrations of THMs and HAAs were higher on rainy days than on sunny days (when temperature is around 32–34 °C), which is due to the fact that the higher temperature favors the volatilization of THMs and HAAs, decreasing their concentration in the water. It is clearly observed that, when the pool has more users, the concentration of THMs is higher than when there are fewer users. This indicates that the organic matter from users contribute to forms THMs.
Most of the pools showed higher concentrations of HAAs when there were fewer users, which is surprising given the findings of Kanan and Karanfil (2011), who showed that the organic matter of the users’ bodies has HAAS-forming potential [14].
Samples with few users were collected on a Saturday around 9 a.m., and samples with many users were collected at around 3 p.m. It is likely that, due to the temperature on the day in Medellín (32 to 34 °C, as the samples were collected on sunny days), the pools lost HAA concentration. The HAAs formed and accumulated until 6 p.m., the time the pools close, and perhaps did not evaporate, since from 5 p.m. the temperature of Medellín begins to decrease, reaching 19 °C between 9 p.m. and 7 a.m. Therefore, the next day at 9 a.m., the concentration of HAAs may be high. This is not the case with THMs as they are more easily volatilized, even at night.
It is important to mention that the water used to fill swimming pools is also for human consumption in the city of Medellín, and this water is of good quality (our group has been monitoring the quality of the water for human consumption in the city of Medellín from 2004 to date). The concentrations of DBPs in water for human consumption in Medellín are very low (Table 2) and they comply with the regulations established in Colombia. All the pools selected in this study use water from the Ayurá or Manantiales aqueducts.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show how the concentration of THMs and HAAs varied in the selected pools in Medellín according to the DBP study.
The P1, P4, P5, P9, and P14 pools had the highest THMs and HAAs values. P9 corresponds to a teaching pool for babies, who generate a large amount of body fluids, favoring the production of THMs and HAAs. Eleven pools did not comply with the regulations for the maximum value of THMs in pools of the France standard and the German DIN standard (Figure 1).

3.2. Residual Free Chlorine Measured during the Monitoring of DBPs

Figure 3 shows that the residual free chlorine measured during sampling to measure THMs and HAAs was generally well below 2 mg/L.
In general, the residual chlorine influenced the concentration of THMs and HAAs. However, the speed of formation of the DBPs depends on the pH of the water in each pool. The average pH of swimming pool water was 7.55, with a maximum value of 8.45 and a minimum of 7.05. The pKa of hypochlorous acid is 7.53 (25 °C), indicating that the majority species in some pools was hypochlorite, and in others hypochlorous acid. Hansen et al. (2013) proved that formation of THMs increases in pools when pH is increased above 7.2 [21].

3.3. Temperature Measured during the Monitoring of DBPs

Figure 4 shows water temperature during sampling for the measurement of THMs and HAAs in the public pools selected for the study. The water temperature is very influential in the concentration values of THMs and HAAs.

4. Discussion

To provide a comparison reference, Table 3 shows the results of THMs and HAAs in swimming pools in other countries. Based on this, THMs were found at surprisingly high values in public pools in Medellín. The values for HAAs found in public swimming pools in Medellín were also generally the highest, but they are in the range in which these byproducts were found in the United States. Despite the fact that it is mandatory for public pools in Medellín to have foot washes and showers, users often do not comply with requirements to shower thoroughly before entering the pool, which favors the organic matter of the bodies of the users or their sun protection products, which react with the chlorinated disinfecting agent to form HAAs and THMs.
Table 4 shows the maximum allowed concentrations (MAC) of THMs in swimming pool water in several European countries. Most of the samples from the public swimming pools in Medellín have levels of THMs that would not comply with the limits shown in this table. This is very worrying, because it is putting the health of bathers at risk. The Medellín Health Authority has demanded for many years that establishments apply controls on the use of swimming pools, such as keeping them isolated from green areas, and having mandatory foot washing areas and showers. Colombia does not have reference values for DBPs in swimming pools, but for drinking water it has established a maximum allowed value of 200 µg/L in THMs; there are no reference values for the other DBPs.
According to Figure 1 and Figure 2, P19 pool is highlighted (see coding in Table 1), as it had high values of THMs and HAAs in all the samplings. This pool is used for teaching babies, who because of their age are not aware of bodily functions and involuntarily urinate inside the pool and will also have products, such as sunscreen, that their parents apply to their skin. The biggest contributor to DBPs in pools is urine; it has estimated that swimming pools contain an average of 30 to 80 mL of urine for each person [36]. Therefore, there is a high input of organic matter into this pool. Urea, the main component in urine [13], was reported in swimming pools at concentrations of 0.50–2.12 mg/L [37], 0.12–3.6 mg/L [38], 0.01–0.11 mg/L [28], and 0.23 ± 0.19 mg/L [39]. Urine has other compounds such as creatinine, hippuric acid, citric acid, ammonia, uric acid, glycine, and histidine, which can produce DBPs [40]. Sunscreens released by swimmers could be the potential precursors of chlorinated and oxidized or nitrogenous DBPs [41].
DBP precursors in swimming pools waters include natural organic matter (NOM) from the filling water, body fluids from the swimmers (e.g., urine, sweat, hair, saliva, etc.), and products used by users (e.g., sunscreen, body lotion, hand soaps, laundry detergents, shampoos, hair gels) [11,29]. In Medellín, the water used to fill pools is from an aqueduct that has total maximum organic carbon values of 1 mg/L. Keuten et al. (2014) found that sweat is the body fluid that provides the second biggest contribution of organic matter to swimming pools [42]. The amount that people sweat in pools depends on both the water temperature and their level of activity. According to Keuten et al. (2014), in cold water, “you don’t sweat because the water is cooling your body down and your core temperature doesn’t rise” [42], while around 27 or 29 °C, “the cooling effect of the pool water is not enough, and your core temperature starts rising” [42]. In the selected pools of Medellín, the average water temperature was 26.64 °C, the minimum being 23.40 °C and the maximum 32.70 °C. This indicates that pools in Medellin have a significant contribution of sweat by bathers.
The results from pool P9 demonstrate that organic matter is the precursor of THMs. When there are a relatively high number of babies in the pool, the concentration values of THMs increase remarkably compared to when there are few babies in the pool. It is possible that the same occurs with HAAs; however, in the present work this was not very clear.
In some pools (Figure 3), such as P9 and P14, free residual chlorine was close to or slightly greater than 2 mg/L, and higher concentrations of THMs and HAAs were measured than in the other pools. Although in our study the relationship between residual free chlorine and DBPs was only evident in some pools, a direct correlation between free residual chlorine and DBPs has been reported in the literature [26,35,43].
Figure 4 shows that the water temperature in the pools was in the range of 23.40 °C to 32.70 °C during sampling to measure THMs and HAAs, but the pools that exceeded 28 °C, such as P4, P9, and P14, had the highest DBP values. This is in accordance with what was reported by Karanfil et al. (2015) who proved that the increase in residual free chlorine and temperature increases the concentrations of THMs and HAAs [26]. Ilyas et al. (2018) reported that total organic carbon, residual free chlorine, temperature, pH, and bromide play a fundamental role in DBP formation processes [44]. Yang et al. (2016) reported that THM concentrations almost doubled when the temperature increased from 25 to 40 °C [43]. However, the low volatility of HAAs causes their accumulation in the water, causing their concentrations to increase to a very high level over time [45], while the high volatility of THMs prevents their accumulation.
HPs were detected in waters for human consumption in concentrations between 0.010 and 0.486 µg·L−1 in Poland [46], between 0.008 and 0.238 µg·L−1 in Rio de Janeiro [47], and on average 0.06 µg·L−1 in Tunisia [48]. In the present study, we did not detect HPs in swimming pools or water for human consumption. There are very few reports of HPs in swimming pool waters because they are in concentrations that are too low to detect easily. By themselves, HPs are generally in low concentration in water for human consumption. During hypochlorite disinfection, HPs are formed less easily than THMs and HAAs, because hypochlorous acid does not react easily with phenolic compounds, although hypobromous acid does so slightly faster [49]. Despite this, a wide variety of HPs were reported in water for human consumption [50]. Among the few reports on the detection of HPs in swimming pool waters is that of Xiao et al. (2012), who verified the presence of 2,4-dibromophenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2-bromophenol, 2,6-dibromo-4-nitrophenol, 2-bromo-6-chloro-4-nitrophenol, and 2,6-dichloro-4-nitrophenol, which were fully identified using the powerful precursor ion scan method with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry [51]. They found small amounts of bromide in the chlorine sanitizing agent.

4.1. Statistical Analysis

4.1.1. Correlations

In order to determine if there are significant linear relationships between the variables, the correlation matrix was calculated (Figure 5 and Table 5). It is observed that all relationships are direct, the strongest being between temperature and THMs.

4.1.2. ANOVA Analysis of Variance

In order to determine the influence of the pool on the concentration of THMs and HAAs, the analysis of variance was performed and results presented in Table 6 and Table 7. With a confidence level of 95%, lower p-values (to 0.05) are taken as significant. In conclusion, the HAA concentration values depend on the pool (0.003608 < 0.05), while THM concentration values do not (0.1911 > 0.05).
It should be noted that power transformation was performed on the variables to guarantee normality and the assumptions of nonautocorrelation, homoscedasticity, and normality of the residuals were validated.

5. Conclusions

The pool that has the most THMs and HAAs is P9. This is used for swimming lessons for babies, which indicates that more bodily waste is released into this pool, along with other products, such as sunscreens.
It was observed that the concentration of free residual free chlorine and the temperature favor a higher concentration of THMs and HAAs.
The results are consistent with what was reported previously, that the concentration of HAAs is higher than that of THMs.
The high concentrations of THMs and HAAs found in the public pools of Medellín are certainly not due to the water with which the pools are filled, which is also water for human consumption in Medellín. This is good quality water with very low concentrations of THMs and HAAs, which comply with the maximum permitted values for these compounds.
HPs were not detected, which is consistent with the very few reports confirming the presence of these compounds in swimming pool water.
We recommended that the environmental health authority carry out annual monitoring of DBPs in all the public swimming pools in Medellín, and carry out training with the managers of public swimming pools on how to minimize the presence of DBPs to avoid health risks for pool users.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.A.P. and F.C.; methodology, P.L., V.R., and F.C.; formal analysis, P.L. and V.R.; writing—original draft preparation, P.L.; writing—review and editing, G.A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by Medellín Health Authority and the GDCON group of the University of Antioquia.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Chaves, R.; Guerreiro, C.; Cardoso, V.; Benoliel, M.; Santos, M. Review: Hazard and mode of action of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in water for human consumption: Evidences and research priorities. Comp. Biochem. Phys. C 2019, 223, 53–61. [Google Scholar]
  2. Källén, B.; Robert, E. Drinking water chlorination and delivery outcome -a registry-based study in Sweden. Reprod. Toxicol. 2000, 14, 303–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Fukuzaki, S. Minireview mechanisms of actions of sodium hypochlorite in cleaning and disinfection processes. Biocontrol Sci. 2006, 11, 147–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Jiang, J.; Li, W.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J.; Zhu, X. A new approach to controlling halogenated DBPs by GAC adsorption of aromatic intermediates from chlorine disinfection: Effects of bromide and contact time. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2018, 203, 260–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Xie, Y. Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water: Formation, Analysis, and Control, 1st ed.; Taylor & Francis, CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  6. Carter, R.A.A.; Joll, C.A. Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. J. Environ. Sci. 2017, 58, 19–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Nieuwenhuijsen, M.; Martinez, D.; Grellier, J.; Bennett, J.; Best, N.; Iszatt, N.; Vrijheid, M.; Toledano, M. Chlorination disinfection by-products in drinking water and congenital anomalies: Review and meta-analyses. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 1486–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Richardson, S.D. Disinfection by-products: Formation and occurrence in drinking water. Enc. Environ. Health 2011, 2, 110–136. [Google Scholar]
  9. Teo, T.L.; Coleman, H.M.; Khan, S.J. Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. Environ. Int. 2015, 76, 16–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Gopal, K.; Tripathy, S.S.; Bersillon, J.L.; Dubey, S.P. Chlorination byproducts, their toxicodynamics and removal from drinking water. J. Hazard Mater. 2007, 140, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Chowdhury, S.; Alhooshani, K.; Karanfil, T. Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: Occurrences, implications and future needs. Water Res. 2014, 53, 68–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Teixeira, M.; Rosa, S.; Sousa, V. Natural organic matter and disinfection by-products formation potential in water treatment. Water Resourc. Manag. 2011, 25, 3005–3015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th ed.; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  14. Kanan, A.; Karanfil, T. Formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water: The contribution from filling water natural organic matter and swimmer body fluids. Water Res. 2011, 45, 926–932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Manasfi, T.; Coulomb, B.; Boudenne, J.L. Occurrence, origin, and toxicity of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pools: An overview. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2017, 220, 591–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. DIN. Treatment of the Water of Swimming Pools and Baths; Part 1: General Requirements, Germany Standard; Publisher German Institute for Standardization: Berlin, Germany, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  17. ANSES. Health Risk Assessment in Swimming Pools; Part 1: Regulated Pools; French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety; Publisher ANSES: Paris, France, 2012.
  18. ASTM. Standard Practice for the Solid Phase Micro Extraction (SPME) of Water and its Headspace for the Analysis of Volatile and Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds; American Society for Testing and Materials: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2018; Volume 11. [Google Scholar]
  19. EPA. Determination of Haloacetic Acids and Dalapon Analysis in Drinking Water by Ion Exchange Liquid-Solid Extraction and GC with an Electron Capture Detector; Method 552.2; Publisher EPA: Washington, DC, USA, 2003.
  20. UNE. Revista de la Normalización Española; Publisher Asociación Española de Normalización: Madrid, Spain, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  21. Hansen, K.; Albrechtsen, H.-J.; Andersen, H.R. Optimal pH in chlorinated swimming pools—Balancing formation of by-products. Water Health 2013, 11, 465–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Yang, L.; Chen, X.; She, Q.; Cao, G.; Liu, Y.; Chang, V.; Tang, C.H. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. Environ. Int. 2018, 121, 1039–1057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Fantuzzi, G.; Righi, E.; Predieri, G.; Ceppelli, G.; Gobba, F.; Aggazzotti, G. Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. Sci. Total Environ. 2001, 264, 257–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Righi, E.; Fantuzzi, G.; Predieri, G.; Aggazzotti, G. Bromate, chlorite, chlorate, haloacetic acids, and trihalomethanes occurrence in indoor swimming pool. Waters in Italy. Microchem. J. 2012, 113, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Aprea, M.C.; Banchi, B.; Lunghini, L.; Pagliantini, M.; Peruzzi, A.; Sciarra, G. Disinfection of swimming pools with chlorine and derivatives: Formation of organochlorinated and organobrominated compounds and exposure of pool personnel and swimmers. Nat. Sci. 2010, 2, 68–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Karanfil, T.; Mitch, B.; Westerhoff, P.; Xie, Y. Recent Advances in Disinfection By-Products; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  27. Wang, X.; Leal, M.G.; Zhang, X.; Yang, H.; Xie, Y. Haloacetic acids in swimming pool and SPA water in the United States and China. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2014, 8, 820–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Afifi, M.Z.; Blatchley, E.R., III. Seasonal dynamics of water and air chemistry in an indoor chlorinated swimming pool. Water Res. 2015, 68, 771–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Zwiener, C.; Richardson, S.D.; De Marini, D.M.; Grummt, T.; Glauner, T.; Frimmel, F.H. Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 363–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Glauner, T.; Waldmann, P.; Frimmel, F.H.; Zwiener, C. Swimming pool water-fractionation and genotoxicological characterization of organic constituents. Water Res. 2005, 39, 4494–4502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Catto, C.; Sabrina, S.; Ginette, C.T.; Manuel, R.; Robert, T. Occurrence and spatial and temporal variations of disinfection by-products in the water and air of two indoor swimming pools. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 2562–2586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  32. Erdinger, L.; Kühn, K.; Kirsch, F.; Feldhues, R.; Fröbel, T.; Nohynek, B.; Gabrio, T. Pathways of trihalomethane uptake in swimming pools. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2004, 207, 571–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Chu, H.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M. Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools. Occup. Environ. Med. 2002, 59, 243–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Tardif, R.; Catto, C.; Haddad, S.; Simard, S.; Rodriguez, M. Assessment of air and water contamination by disinfection by-products at 41 indoor swimming pools. Environ. Res. 2016, 148, 411–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Simard, S.; Tardif, R.; Rodriguez, M.J. Variability of chlorination by-product occurrence in water of indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Water Res. 2013, 47, 1763–1772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Arnauder, C. The chemical reactions taking place in your swimming pool. Chem. Eng. News 2016, 94, 28–32. [Google Scholar]
  37. Schmalz, C.; Frimmel, F.; Zwiener, C. Trichloramine in swimming pools—Formation and mass transfer. Water Res. 2011, 45, 2681–2690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. De Laat, J.; Feng, W.; Freyfer, D.A.; Dossier-Berne, F. Concentration levels of urea in swimming pool water and reactivity of chlorine with urea. Water Res. 2011, 45, 1139–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Yang, L.; Zhou, J.; She, Q.; Wan, M.P.; Wang, R.; Chang, V.; Tang, C. Role of calcium ions on the removal of haloacetic acids from swimming pool water by nanofiltration: Mechanisms and implications. Water Res. 2017, 110, 332–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Rose, C.; Parker, A.; Jefferson, B.; Cartmell, E. The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 45, 1827–1879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  41. Balmer, M.; Buser, H.R.; Müller, M.; Poiger, T. Occurrence of some organic UV filters in wastewater, in surface waters, and in Fish from Swiss Lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 953–962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Keuten, M.G.A.; Peters, M.C.F.M.; Daanen, H.A.M.; de Kreuk, M.K.; Rietveld, L.C.; van Dijk, J.C. Quantification of continual anthropogenic pollutants released in swimming pools. Water Res. 2014, 53, 259–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Yang, L.; Schmalz, C.; Zhou, J.; Zwiener, C.; Chang, V.; Ge, L.; Wan, M.P. An insight of disinfection by-product (DBP) formation by alternative disinfectants for swimming pool disinfection under tropical conditions. Water Res. 2016, 101, 535–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Ilyas, H.; Masíh, I.; van der Hoek, J.P. An exploration of disinfection by-products formation and governing factors in chlorinated swimming pool water. J. Water Health 2018, 16, 861–892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Kanan, A. Occurrence and Formation of Disinfection By-Products in Indoor Swimming Pools Water. Ph.D. Thesis, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  46. Michałowicz, J. The occurrence of chlorophenols, chlorocatechols and chlorinated methoxyphenols in drinking water of the largest cities in Poland. J. Environ. Stud. 2005, 14, 327–333. [Google Scholar]
  47. Sartori, A.; Krauss, T.; Cheble, A.; Gomes de Almeida Yamazaki, A.; Oliveira, R. Chlorophenols in tap water from wells and surface sources in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil—Method validation and analysis. Química Nova 2012, 35, 814–817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Ben-Hassine, S.; Hammami, B.; Touil, S.; Driss, M.R. Determination of chlorophenols in water samples using solid-phase extraction enrichment procedure and gas chromatography analysis. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015, 95, 654–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Roche, P.; Tondelier, C.; Benanou, D. Influence of NOM chlorination onhalophenols: Appearance and control on a water treatment plant. In Safe Drinking Water from Source to Tap: State-of-Art & Perspectives; Van den Hoven, T., Kazner, C., Eds.; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
  50. Pan, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, A.; Xu, B.; Xian, Q.; Shuang, C.; Shi, P.; Zhou, Q. Detection, formation and occurrence of 13 new polar phenolic chlorinated and brominated disinfection byproducts in drinking water. Water Res. 2017, 112, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Xiao, F.; Zhang, X.; Zhai, H.; Lo, I.; Tipoe, G.; Yang, M.; Pan, Y.; Chen, G. New halogenated disinfection byproducts in swimming pool water and their permeability across skin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 7112–7119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Ijerph 17 04659 g001 550
Figure 1. THM concentration in the public pools selected for the study. With horizontal lines is showed the regulations for the maximum value of THMs in pools of the France standard and the German DIN standard.
Figure 1. THM concentration in the public pools selected for the study. With horizontal lines is showed the regulations for the maximum value of THMs in pools of the France standard and the German DIN standard.
Ijerph 17 04659 g001
Ijerph 17 04659 g002 550
Figure 2. Concentration of HAAs in the public pools selected for the study.
Figure 2. Concentration of HAAs in the public pools selected for the study.
Ijerph 17 04659 g002
Ijerph 17 04659 g003 550
Figure 3. Residual free chlorine in the public pools selected for the study when sampled for the measurement of THMs and HAAs.
Figure 3. Residual free chlorine in the public pools selected for the study when sampled for the measurement of THMs and HAAs.
Ijerph 17 04659 g003
Ijerph 17 04659 g004 550
Figure 4. Water temperature during sampling for the measurement of THMs and HAAs in the public pools selected for the study.
Figure 4. Water temperature during sampling for the measurement of THMs and HAAs in the public pools selected for the study.
Ijerph 17 04659 g004
Ijerph 17 04659 g005 550
Figure 5. Correlation graph.
Figure 5. Correlation graph.
Ijerph 17 04659 g005
Table
Table 1. Results of trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) concentration in public swimming pools (four monitoring times: M1, M2, M3, M4). M1: a rainy day; M2: a day when there were many users in the pool; M3: a day when there were few users in the pool; M4: a sunny day.
Table 1. Results of trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) concentration in public swimming pools (four monitoring times: M1, M2, M3, M4). M1: a rainy day; M2: a day when there were many users in the pool; M3: a day when there were few users in the pool; M4: a sunny day.
EstablishmentPoolCodeTHMs (µg/L)HAAs (µg/L)
M1M2M3M4M1M2M3M4
APool AP116911591ND158956ND1352505
Pool BP214531504603255903638717505
BWavesP363860931783776357703450
Children RoundP44951553110152149514121984985
Multiple DidactsP5111512144972649913853023865
SlidesP611010007318513401273187
COlympicP71061454049636371621310
Ornamental JumpP85017535365589354701512
Teaching BabiesP933894461248417233218283065696
Adults SchoolP1032288662311705901050407
Children SchoolP1110543916755903474985567
DAdultsP124859546424299212348310
EAdultsP13721612767354238553629
FSemi-OlympicP149562094ND941531757ND1480
WaterfallsP1571333ND13485385ND545
Table
Table 2. Concentration of THMS and HAAs in drinking water from the city of Medellín, samples collected at different points in the aqueduct network by the GDCON.
Table 2. Concentration of THMS and HAAs in drinking water from the city of Medellín, samples collected at different points in the aqueduct network by the GDCON.
AqueductConcentration THMs (µg/L)Concentration HAAs (µg/L)
M1M2M1M2
Aqueduct La Montaña647914
Aqueduct Villa Hermosa201656<5
Aqueduct Ayurá1336156
Aqueduct Manantiales136206044
Table
Table 3. Concentrations of THMs and HAAs in swimming pool waters in other countries (Table reported by [22] and supplemented by us).
Table 3. Concentrations of THMs and HAAs in swimming pool waters in other countries (Table reported by [22] and supplemented by us).
CountryTHMs (µg/L) Average or RangeHAAs (µg/L) Average or RangeReferences
Italy17.8–70.8 [23]
Italy36.9–65.111–403[24]
Italy11–85 [25]
US80 (26–213)1541 (172–9005)[26]
US~251442 (800–2430)[27]
US81 (12–282) [28]
Germany39 (5–125) [29]
Germany35–47 [30]
Germany 218 (111–390)[31]
Germany7.1–24.8 [32]
England132 (57–223) [33]
Canada38.1257.6[34]
Canada29 (13–46) [31]
France70 (50–92)116 (109–132)[15]
Table
Table 4. Maximum allowed concentrations (MAC) of THMs in swimming pool water in several European countries [22].
Table 4. Maximum allowed concentrations (MAC) of THMs in swimming pool water in several European countries [22].
CountryMAC (μg/L)CommentsReferences
Germany20THMs calculated as chloroform[16]
Switzerland30THMs for indoor pools[35]
Denmark25 or 50THMs (depending on the type of pools)[35]
Belgium100Chloroform[35]
France100 or 20THMs[17]
United Kingdom100THMs[35]
Finland100THMs[35]
Table
Table 5. Correlation matrix.
Table 5. Correlation matrix.
THMsHAApHTemperatureFree Chlorine
1
0.331
0.080.201
0.430.240.061
0.250.070.330.151
Table
Table 6. ANOVA for THMs.
Table 6. ANOVA for THMs.
Variation SourceSquare SumDegree of FreedomMean SquareF Statisticp-Value
Swimming54.973143.92661.40340.1911
Residuals125.911452.7980
Table
Table 7. ANOVA for HAAs.
Table 7. ANOVA for HAAs.
Variation SourceSquare SumDegree of FreedomMean SquareF Statisticp-Value
Swimming3.2009140.228642.87960.003608
Residuals3.5730450.07940

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lara, P.; Ramírez, V.; Castrillón, F.; Peñuela, G.A. Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4659. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134659

AMA Style

Lara P, Ramírez V, Castrillón F, Peñuela GA. Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(13):4659. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134659

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lara, Paula, Valentina Ramírez, Fernando Castrillón, and Gustavo A. Peñuela. 2020. "Presence of Disinfection Byproducts in Public Swimming Pools in Medellín, Colombia" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 13: 4659. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134659

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop