Impact of Parents’ Knowledge about the Development of Self-Esteem in Adolescents and Their Parenting Practice on the Self-Esteem and Suicidal Behavior of Urban High School Students in Nepal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design, Setting and Population
2.2. Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
2.3. Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations of This Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Collins, W.A.; Steinberg, L. Adolescent Development in Interpersonal Context. In Child and Adolescent Development an Advanced Course; Damon, W., Learner, R.M., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 534–590. [Google Scholar]
- Harter, S. The Developing Self. In Child and Adolescent Development an Advanced Course; Damon, W., Learner, R.M., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2008; pp. 216–255. [Google Scholar]
- Lerner, R.M.; Steinberg, L. Individual bases of adolescent development. In Handbook of Adolescent Psychology; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2009; p. 1. [Google Scholar]
- Potts, N.L.; Mandleco, B.L. Pediatric Nursing; Caring for Children and Their Families, 3rd ed.; Delmar Cengage Learning: Clifton Park, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. Adolescent Mental Health Fact Sheet. 2020. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health (accessed on 20 March 2020).
- World Health Organization (WHO). Global Accelerated Action for the Health of Adolescents (AA-HA!): Guidance to Support Country Implementation; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Rosenberg, M.; Schooler, C.; Schoenbach, C.; Rosenberg, F. Global Self-Esteem and Specific Self-Esteem: Different Concepts, Different Outcomes. Am. Sociol. Rev. 1995, 60, 141–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akdemir, D.; Çak, T.; Aslan, C.; Aydos, B.S.; Nalbant, K.; Çuhadaroğlu-Çetin, F. Predictors of self-esteem in adolescents with a psychiatric referral. Turk. J. Pediatr. 2016, 58, 69–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Huang, J.Y.; Wang, K.Y.; Ringel-Kulka, T. Predictors of life satisfaction among Asian-American adolescents-analysis of add health data. Springer Plus 2015, 4, 216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Du, H.; King, R.B.; Chi, P. Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0183958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rosenberg, M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1965. [Google Scholar]
- Jayanthi, P.; Rajkumar, R. Is low self-esteem a risk factor for depression among adolescents? an analytical study with interventional component. Int. J. Med. Res. Health Sci. 2014, 3, 627–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Masselink, M.; Van Roekel, E.; Oldehinkel, A.J. Self-esteem in Early Adolescence as Predictor of Depressive Symptoms in Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood: The Mediating Role of Motivational and Social Factors. J. Youth Adolesc. 2018, 47, 932–946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Orth, U.; Robins, R.W.; Roberts, B.W. Low Self-Esteem Prospectively Predicts Depression in Adolescence and Young Adulthood. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2008, 95, 695–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rosenberg, M.; Schooler, C.; Schoenbach, C. Self-Esteem and Adolescent Problems: Modeling Reciprocal Effects. Am. Sociol. Rev. 1989, 1004–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Handren, L.M.; Donaldson, C.D.; Crano, W.D. Adolescent Alcohol Use: Protective and Predictive Parent, Peer, and Self-Related Factors. Prev. Sci. 2016, 17, 862–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, L.Y.; Martins, S.S.; Strain, E.C.; Mojtabai, R.; Storr, C.L. Sex and Age Differences in Risk Factors of Marijuana Involvement during Adolescence. Addict Disord Their Treat. 2018, 17, 29–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karaman, N.G. Predicting the Problem Behavior in Adolescents. Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 2013, 52, 137–154. [Google Scholar]
- Enejoh, V.; Pharr, J.; Mavegam, B.O.; Olutola, A.; Karick, H.; Ezeanolue, E.E. Impact of self-esteem on risky sexual behaviors among Nigerian adolescents. AIDS Care-Psychol. Socio-Med Asp. AIDS/HIV 2016, 28, 672–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kerpelman, J.L.; McElwain, A.D.; Pittman, J.F.; Adler-Baeder, F.M. Engagement in Risky Sexual Behavior: Adolescents’ Perceptions of Self and the Parent–Child Relationship Matter. Youth Soc. 2016, 48, 101–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trzesniewski, K.H.; Donnellan, M.B.; Moffitt, T.E.; Robins, R.W.; Poulton, R.; Caspi, A. Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Dev. Psychol. 2006, 42, 381–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kleiman, E.M.; Riskind, J.H. Utilized social support and self-esteem mediate the relationship between perceived social support and suicide ideation: A Test of a Multiple mediator Model. Crisis 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huang, Y.H.; Liu, H.C.; Sun, F.J.; Tsai, F.J.; Huang, K.Y.; Chen, T.C.; Huang, Y.P.; Liu, S.L. Relationship Between Predictors of Incident Deliberate Self-Harm and Suicide Attempts Among Adolescents. J. Adolesc. Health 2017, 60, 5, 612–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sharaf, A.Y.; Thompson, E.A.; Walsh, E. Protective effects of self-esteem and family support on suicide risk behaviors among at-risk adolescents. J. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Nurs. 2009, 22, 160–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative Executive Summary; WHO Press: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. Suicide in the World: Global Health Estimates; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. Mental Health Status of Adolescents in South-East Asia: Evidence for Action; World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia, World Health House, Indraprastha Estate, Mahatma Gandhi Marg: New Delhi, India, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Banstola, R.S.; Ogino, T.; Inoue, S. Self-esteem, perceived social support, social capital anf risk behavior among urban high school adolescents in Nepal. J. Soc. Sci. Med. Popul. Health 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamichhane, D. Factors Associated with Self-Esteem of Adolescents. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Medicine, Maharajgunj Nursing Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Cooley, C.H. On Self and Social Organization; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Mead, G.H. Mind, Self and Society; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 1934. [Google Scholar]
- Maccoby, E.E. On reading and misreading behavior genetics. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2000, 51, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bornstein, M.H. Biology and Ecology of Parenting. Handbook of Parenting; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers: Mahwah, NJ, USA; London, UK, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Donath, C.; Graessel, E.; Baier, D.; Bleich, S.; Hillemacher, T. Is parenting style a predictor of suicide attempts in a representative sample of adolescents? BMC Pediatr. 2014, 14, 113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bronfenbrenner, U.; Morris, P.A. The Bioecological Model of Human Development. In Handbook of Child Psychology; Wiley Online Library, 2007; Available online: https://www.childhelp.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Bronfenbrenner-U.-and-P.-Morris-2006-The-Bioecological-Model-of-Human-Development.pdf (accessed on 4 April 2020).
- Darling, N.; Steinberg, L. Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychol. Bull. 1993, 113, 487–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dwairy, M. Parenting Styles and Mental Health of Palestinian-Arab Adolescents in Israel. McGill Univ. 2004, 41, 233–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoff, E.; Laursen, B.; Tardif, T.; Bornstein, M. Socioeconomic Status and Parenting. In Handbook of parenting. Biology and Ecology of Parenting; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, USA; London, UK, 2002; Volume 2, pp. 231–251. [Google Scholar]
- Hussain, A.; Aldhafri, S.; Kazem, A.; Alzubiadi, A.; Al-Bahrani, M. Development and validation of a short version of the parental authority questionnaire. Soc. Behav. Pers. 2011, 39, 1193–1208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, C.C.; Mandleco, B.; Roper, S.O.; Olsen, S.F.; Hart, C.H. Parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire (PSDQ). Psychol. Rep. 1995, 77, 819–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DeVore, E.R.; Ginsburg, K.R. The protective effects of good parenting on adolescents: Current opinion in pediatrics. Adolesc. Med. 2005, 17, 460–465. [Google Scholar]
- Shyny, T.Y. Construction and validation of PS-FFQ (parenting style four factor questionnaire). Int. J. Eng. Dev. Res. 2017, 5, 426–432. [Google Scholar]
- Alonso-Stuyck, P. Which Parenting Style Encourages Healthy Lifestyles in Teenage Children? Proposal for a Model of Integrative Parenting Styles. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 2057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aunola, K.; Stattin, H.; Nurmi, J.E. Parenting styles and adolescents’ achievement strategies. J. Adolesc. 2000, 23, 205–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Areepattamannil, S. Parenting Practices, Parenting Style, and Children’s School Achievement. Psychol. Stud. (Mysore) 2010, 55, 283–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinberg, L.; Lamborn, S.D.; Dornbusch, S.M.; Darling, N. Impact of Parenting Practices on Adolescent Achievement: Authoritative Parenting, School Involvement, and Encouragement to Succeed. Child Dev. 1992, 63, 1266–1281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piko, B.F.; Balázs, M.Á. Authoritative parenting style and adolescent smoking and drinking. Addict Behav. 2012, 37, 353–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Glozah, F. Exploring the role of self-esteem and parenting patterns on alcohol use and abuse among adolescents. Health Psychol. Res. 2014, 2, 1898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zuquetto, C.R.; Opaleye, E.S.; Feijó, M.R.; Amato, T.C.; Ferri, C.P.; Noto, A.R. Contributions of parenting styles and parental drunkenness to adolescent drinking. Braz. J. Psychiatry 2019, 41, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Heaven, P.; Ciarrochi, J. Parental styles, gender and the development of hope and self-esteem. Eur. J. Pers. 2008, 22, 707–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milevsky, A.; Schlechter, M.; Netter, S.; Keehn, D. Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2007, 16, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McClure, A.C.; Tanski, S.E.; Kingsbury, J.; Gerrard, M.; Sargent, J.D. Characteristics associated with low self-esteem among US adolescents. Acad. Pediatr. 2010, 10, 238–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alami, A.; Khosravan, S.; Sadegh Moghadam, L.; Pakravan, F.; Hosseni, F. Adolescents’ self-esteem in single and two-parent families. Int. J. Community Based Nurs. Midwifery 2014, 2, 69–76. [Google Scholar]
- Martínez, I.; García, J.F.; Yubero, S. Parenting styles and adolescents’ self-esteem in Brazil. Psychol. Rep. 2007, 100, 731–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, G.; Pandey, N. Parenting Styles and Its Effect on Self-Esteem of Adolescents. Int. J. Indian Psychol. 2015, 3, 1. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, D.E.; Moore, T.M. Parenting style and psychosocial outcomes in a sample of Jamaican adolescents. Int. J. Adolesc. Youth. 2013, 18, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zaborskis, A.; Sirvyte, D.; Zemaitiene, N. Prevalence and familial predictors of suicidal behavior among adolescents in Lithuania: A cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cero, I.; Sifers, S.K. Parenting behavior and the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide: A mediated moderation analysis with adolescents. J. Affect Disord. 2013, 150, 987–992. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spera, C. A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2005, 17, 125–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kerr, M.; Stattin, H.; Özdemir, M. Perceived parenting style and adolescent adjustment: Revisiting directions of effects and the role of parental knowledge. Dev. Psychol. 2012, 48, 1540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hoskins, D. Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes. Societies 2014, 4, 506–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Anli, I.; Karsli, T.A. Perceived parenting style, depression and anxiety levels in a Turkish late-adolescent population. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ministry of Education, Science & Technology. Education in Figures (At a Glance Report); Government of Nepal: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Singha Durbar: Kathmandu, Nepal, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- McGee, R.; Williams, S. Does low self-esteem predict health compromising behaviours among adolescents? J. Adolesc. 2000, 23, 569–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shanmugam, V.; Kathyayini, B.V. Assertiveness and Self-Esteem in Indian Adolescents. Galore Int. J. Health Sci. Res. 2017, 2, 4. [Google Scholar]
- Abraham, K.A. Study on the Self-Esteem and Social Relations of Adolescents with Learning Disability. Thesis on Master of Philosophy (Social Work), Christ University, Bangalore, India, 2010. Available online: http://repository.christuniversity.in/1857/1/thesis_deepu_abraham.pdf (accessed on 26 March 2020).
- García, J.A.; Olmos, F.C.; Matheu, M.L.; Carreño, T.P. Self-esteem levels vs global scores on the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Heliyon 2019, 5, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jessor, R. Problem Behavior Theory: A Half-Century of Research on Adolescent Behavior and Development. In The Developmental Science of Adolescence: History through Autobiography; Lerner, R.M., Petersen, A.C., Silbereisen, R.K., Brooks-Gunn, J., Eds.; Psychology Press: New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 239–256. Available online: https://ibs.colorado.edu/jessor/pubs/Jessor-2014_Problem%20Behavior%20Theory_AHalf-CenturyofResearch.pdf. (accessed on 11 October 2019).
- McAdams, T.A.; Rijsdijk, F.V.; Narusyte, J.; Ganiban, J.M.; Reiss, D.; Spotts, E.; Neiderhiser, J.M.; Lichtenstein, P.; Eley, T.C. Associations between the parent–child relationship and adolescent self-worth: A genetically informed study of twin parents and their adolescent children. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip. 2017, 58, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van De Bongardt, D.; Reitz, E.; Deković, M. Indirect Over-Time Relations between Parenting and Adolescents Sexual Behaviors and Emotions Through Global Self-Esteem. J. Sex Res. 2015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cripps, K.; Zyromski, B. Adolescents’ Psychological Well-Being and Perceived Parental Involvement: Implications for Parental Involvement in Middle Schools. RMLE Online 2009, 33, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smokowski, P.R.; Bacallao, M.L.; Cotter, K.L.; Evans, C.B.R. The Effects of Positive and Negative Parenting Practices on Adolescent Mental Health Outcomes in a Multicultural Sample of Rural Youth. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 2015, 46, 333–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shoshani, A.; Steinmetz, S. Positive Psychology at School: A School-Based Intervention to Promote Adolescents’ Mental Health and Well-Being. J. Happiness Stud. 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdul Gafor, K.; Kurukkan, A. Construction and Validation of Scale of Parenting Style. Online Submiss 2014, 2, 315–323. [Google Scholar]
- Kern, R.M.; Jonyniene, J. Psychometric properties of the Lithuanian version of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ): Pilot study. Fam. J. 2012, 20, 205–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Fuentes, M.D.C.; Jurado, M.D.M.M.; Linares, J.J.G.; Ruiz, N.F.O.; Márquez, M.D.M.S.; Saracostti, M. Parenting practices, life satisfaction, and the role of self-esteem in adolescents. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Veselska, Z.; Geckova, A.M.; Orosova, O.; Gajdosova, B.; Van Dijk, J.P.; Reijneveld, S.A. Self-esteem and resilience: The connection with risky behavior among adolescents. Addict Behav. 2009, 34, 287–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bannink, R.; Pearce, A.; Hope, S. Family income and young adolescents’ perceived social position: Associations with self-esteem and life satisfaction in the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Arch. Dis. Child. 2016, 101, 917–921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Herz, L.; Gullone, E. Relatioship between Self-esteem and Parenting Style: Australian and Vietnamese Australian Adolescents. J. Cross-Cult. Psychlogy 1999, 30, 742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, H.Y. Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restor. Dent. Endod. 2013, 38, 52–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maharjan, S. Self-Esteem of Adolescents in Rupandehi and Kathmandu District. 2008. Available online: https://sujenman.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/maharjan2008_ (accessed on 4 September 2018).
- Thapa, B.; Powell, J.; Yi, J.; McGee, J.; Landis, J.; Rein, L.; Kim, S.; Shrestha, S.; Karmacharya, B. Adolescent health risk and behavior survey: A school- based survey in central Nepal. Kathmandu Univ. Med. J. 2017, 15, 301–307. [Google Scholar]
- Supple, A.J.; Small, S.A. The Influence of Parental Support, Knowledge, and Authoritative Parenting on Hmong and European American Adolescent Development. J. Fam. Issues 2006, 27, 1214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Adhikari, R.P.; Upadhaya, N.; Pokhrel, R.; Suwal, B.R.; Shrestha, M.P.; Subedi, P.K. Health and Social Vulnerability of Adolescents in Nepal. SM J. Public Health Epidemiol. 2016, 2, 1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ministry of Health and Population; World Health Organization. Nepal–WHO Country Cooperation Strategy: 2018–2022; Ministry of Health and Population: Ramshah Path: Kathmandu, Nepal, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Singh, R.; Mahato, S.; Singh, B.; Thapa, J.; Gartland, D. Resilience in Nepalese adolescents: Socio-demographic factors associated with low Resilience. Dovepress 2019, 893–902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Burešová, I.; Bartošová, K.; Čerňák, M. Connection between Parenting Styles and Self-harm in Adolescence. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2015, 171, 1106–1113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Newman, K.; Harrison, L.; Dashiff, C.; Davies, S. Relationships between parenting styles and risk behaviors in adolescent health: An integrative literature review. Rev. Latino-Am. Enfermagem. 2008, 16, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Total | Self-Esteem Level * | p-Value # | Suicidal Risk Behavior ** | p-Value # | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. | % | Low (n = 172) | Normal-High (n = 403) | No (n = 510) | Yes (n = 65) | |||
Parents’ characteristics | ||||||||
Age | ||||||||
≤40 years old | 338 | 58.8 | 102 (30.2) | 236 (69.8) | n.s. | 299 (88.5) | 39 (11.5) | n.s. |
≥41 years old | 237 | 41.2 | 70 (29.5) | 167 (70.5) | 211 (89.0) | 26 (11.0) | ||
Mean ± SD (40.77 ± 6.31) | ||||||||
Relation with child | ||||||||
Father | 226 | 39.3 | 67 (29.6) | 159 (70.4) | n.s. | 200 (88.5) | 26 (11.5) | n.s. |
Mother | 349 | 60.7 | 105 (30.1) | 244 (69.9) | 310 (88.8) | 39 (11.2) | ||
Ethnicity | ||||||||
Brahmin/Chhetri | 215 | 37.4 | 60 (27.9) | 155 (72.1) | n.s. | 189 (87.9) | 26 (12.1) | n.s. |
Janajati | 293 | 50.9 | 91 (31.1) | 202 (68.9) | 260 (88.7) | 33 (11.3) | ||
Others | 67 | 11.7 | 21 (31.3) | 46 (68.7) | 61 (91.0) | 6 (9.0) | ||
Religion | ||||||||
Others | 102 | 17.7 | 30 (29.4) | 72 (70.6) | n.s. | 89 (87.3) | 13 (12.7) | n.s. |
Hindu | 473 | 82.3 | 142 (30.0) | 331 (70.0) | 421 (89.0) | 52 (11.0) | ||
Province/District | ||||||||
Province 3 Kathmandu | 261 | 45.4 | 88 (33.7) | 173 (66.3) | n.s. | 234 (89.7) | 27 (10.3) | n.s. |
Province 4 Kaski | 217 | 37.7 | 60 (27.6) | 157 (72.4) | 190 (87.6) | 27 (12.4) | ||
Province 5 Palpa | 97 | 16.9 | 24 (24.7) | 73 (75.3) | 86 (88.7) | 11 (11.3) | ||
Type of family | ||||||||
Single | 312 | 54.3 | 103 (33.0) | 209 (67.0) | n.s. | 274 (87.8) | 38 (12.2) | n.s. |
Joint | 263 | 45.7 | 69 (26.2) | 194 (73.8) | 236 (89.7) | 27 (10.3) | ||
Education level (n = 548) | ||||||||
Literate to secondary level | 262 | 47.8 | 83 (31.7) | 179 (68.3) | n.s. | 235 (89.7) | 27 (10.3) | n.s. |
Higher secondary and above | 286 | 52.2 | 81 (28.3) | 205 (71.7) | 249 (87.1) | 37 (12.9) | ||
Marital status | ||||||||
Separated/Widow/Widower | 56 | 9.7 | 19 (33.9) | 37 (66.1) | n.s. | 53 (94.6) | 3 (5.4) | n.s. |
Together | 519 | 90.3 | 153 (29.5) | 366 (70.5) | 457 (88.1) | 62 (11.9) | ||
Socio-economic status | ||||||||
Hardly Sufficient | 69 | 12.0 | 26 (37.7) | 43 (62.3) | 0.000 | 62 (89.9) | 7 (10.1) | n.s. |
Sufficient | 358 | 62.3 | 121 (33.8) | 237 (66.2) | 316 (88.3) | 42 (11.7) | ||
Surplus | 148 | 25.7 | 25 (16.9) | 123 (83.1) | 132 (89.2) | 16 (10.8) | ||
Adolescents’ characteristics | ||||||||
Age | ||||||||
13-15 years | 268 | 46.6 | 78 (29.1) | 190 (70.9) | n.s. | 238 (88.8) | 30 (11.2) | n.s. |
16-19 years | 307 | 53.4 | 94 (30.6) | 213 (69.4) | 272 (88.6) | 35 (11.4) | ||
Mean ± SD (15.69 ± 1.31 years) | ||||||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | 252 | 43.8 | 62 (24.6) | 190 (75.4) | 0.014 | 234 (92.9) | 18 (7.1) | 0.005 |
Female | 323 | 56.2 | 110 (34.1) | 213 (65.9) | 276 (85.4) | 47 (14.6) | ||
Type of school | ||||||||
Government/Public | 365 | 63.5 | 119 (32.6) | 246 (67.4) | n.s. | 332 (91.0) | 33 (9.0) | 0.024 |
Private | 210 | 36.5 | 53 (25.2) | 157 (74.8) | 178 (84.8) | 32 (15.2) |
Parenting Practice (Communication, Support, Reinforcement, etc.) | Authoritarian Parenting | Authoritative Parenting | Indulgent Parenting | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||||||||
B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | B | β | |
95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | 95% CI | |||||||||
Parent’s knowledge about the development of self-esteem in adolescents | 1.0 | 0.56 | 1.0 | 0.59 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.18 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.07 |
(0.85, 1.08) ** | (0.89, 1.11) ** | (−0.03, 0.06) | (−0.03, 0.07) | (0.13, 0.23) ** | (0.15, 0.25) ** | (−0.03, 0.08) | (−0.01, 0.10) |
Independent Variables | Self-Esteem Level of Adolescents | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | ||||||||||||
Mean (SE) | B | β | t | P | LCI | UCI | B | β | t | P | LCI | UCI | |
Knowledge about the development of self-esteem in adolescents | 40.47 (0.23) | 0.051 | 0.073 | 1.745 | 0.082 | −0.006 | 0.108 | 0.053 | 0.075 | 1.784 | 0.075 | −0.005 | 0.111 |
Parenting practice (communication, support, reinforcement, etc.) | 70.36 (0.39) | 0.036 | 0.087 | 2.101 | 0.036 | 0.002 | 0.069 | 0.024 | 0.058 | 1.361 | 0.174 | −0.011 | 0.059 |
Authoritarian parenting | 13.12 (0.13) | −0.050 | −0.043 | −1.019 | 0.309 | −0.146 | 0.046 | −0.040 | −0.034 | −0.799 | 0.424 | −0.139 | 0.059 |
Authoritative parenting | 19.71 (0.15) | 0.125 | 0.121 | 2.923 | 0.004 | 0.041 | 0.208 | 0.098 | 0.093 | 2.213 | 0.027 | 0.011 | 0.186 |
Indulgent/Laissez-faire parenting | 12.26 (0.15) | −0.024 | −0.023 | −0.542 | 0.588 | −0.112 | 0.063 | −0.060 | −0.055 | −1.309 | 0.191 | −0.150 | 0.030 |
Independent Variables | Suicidal Risk Behavior of Adolescents | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||||||||
B | p | OR | LCI | UCI | B | p | OR | LCI | UCI | |
Parenting practice (communication, support, reinforcement, etc.) | −1.499 | 0.552 | 0.99 | 0.966 | 1.019 | −3.075 | 0.628 | 0.99 | 0.964 | 1.022 |
Authoritarian parenting | −2.922 | 0.113 | 1.1 | 0.985 | 1.155 | −4.621 | 0.041 | 1.1 | 1.004 | 1.194 |
Authoritative parenting | −0.910 | 0.069 | 0.94 | 0.884 | 1.005 | −2.482 | 0.136 | 0.95 | 0.885 | 1.017 |
Indulgent/Laissez-faire parenting | −1.674 | 0.377 | 0.97 | 0.903 | 1.040 | −3.569 | 0.897 | 0.99 | 0.922 | 1.074 |
Parental Background Variables | Authoritative Parenting Style | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | β | t | p | LCI | UCI | |
Parent’s age | −0.040 | −0.066 | −1.592 | n.s. | −0.089 | 0.009 |
Relation with child | ||||||
Father ref. | ||||||
Mother | −0.175 | −0.023 | −0.541 | n.s. | −0.812 | 0.461 |
Religion | ||||||
Others ref. | ||||||
Hindu | 0.430 | 0.043 | 1.038 | n.s. | −0.383 | 1.244 |
Ethnicity | ||||||
Brahmin/Chhetri | 0.267 | 0.034 | 0.816 | n.s. | −0.375 | 0.910 |
Janajati | −0.174 | −0.023 | −0.548 | n.s. | −0.796 | 0.448 |
Others | −0.186 | −0.016 | −0.377 | n.s. | −1.155 | 0.783 |
Family type | ||||||
Single ref. | ||||||
Joint | 0.445 | 0.059 | 1.403 | n.s. | −0.178 | 1.069 |
Educational level | ||||||
Secondary and below ref. | ||||||
Higher secondary and above | −0.143 | −0.019 | −0.450 | n.s. | −0.767 | 0.481 |
Mother’s occupation * | ||||||
Home-maker | 0.635 | 0.083 | 2.003 | 0.046 | 0.012 | 1.258 |
Father’s occupation | ||||||
Works at home/unemployed ref. | ||||||
Employed | 0.214 | 0.014 | 0.330 | n.s. | −1.057 | 1.484 |
Economic status * | ||||||
Hardly sufficient | −1.242 | −0.107 | −2.564 | 0.011 | −2.194 | −0.291 |
Sufficient | 0.211 | 0.027 | 0.646 | n.s. | −0.431 | 0.852 |
Surplus | 0.427 | 0.049 | 1.181 | n.s. | −0.283 | 1.138 |
Marital status | ||||||
Widow/widower/separated/divorced ref. | ||||||
Married and living together | 0.161 | 0.013 | 0.301 | n.s. | −0.888 | 1.210 |
Age of adolescent child | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.021 | n.s. | −0.234 | 0.239 |
Sex of child | ||||||
Male ref. | ||||||
Female | −0.151 | −0.020 | −0.475 | n.s. | −0.778 | 0.475 |
School district * | ||||||
Kathmandu | −0.618 | −0.081 | −1.948 | n.s. | −1.240 | 0.005 |
Kaski | −0.107 | −0.014 | −0.328 | n.s. | −0.749 | 0.534 |
Palpa | 1.271 | 0.126 | 3.030 | 0.003 | 0.447 | 2.095 |
School type | ||||||
Government/Public ref. | ||||||
Private | −0.626 | −0.080 | −1.910 | n.s. | −1.270 | 0.018 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Banstola, R.S.; Ogino, T.; Inoue, S. Impact of Parents’ Knowledge about the Development of Self-Esteem in Adolescents and Their Parenting Practice on the Self-Esteem and Suicidal Behavior of Urban High School Students in Nepal. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176039
Banstola RS, Ogino T, Inoue S. Impact of Parents’ Knowledge about the Development of Self-Esteem in Adolescents and Their Parenting Practice on the Self-Esteem and Suicidal Behavior of Urban High School Students in Nepal. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(17):6039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176039
Chicago/Turabian StyleBanstola, Ratna Shila, Tetsuya Ogino, and Sachiko Inoue. 2020. "Impact of Parents’ Knowledge about the Development of Self-Esteem in Adolescents and Their Parenting Practice on the Self-Esteem and Suicidal Behavior of Urban High School Students in Nepal" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176039
APA StyleBanstola, R. S., Ogino, T., & Inoue, S. (2020). Impact of Parents’ Knowledge about the Development of Self-Esteem in Adolescents and Their Parenting Practice on the Self-Esteem and Suicidal Behavior of Urban High School Students in Nepal. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176039