Process Waters from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Sludge: Characteristics and Possible Valorization Pathways
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Digestate
3. Hydrothermal Carbonization
4. Hydrothermal Carbonization of Digestate
5. Hydrothermal Carbonization Process Water Characterization
5.1. pH and Color
5.2. Organic Compounds
5.3. Nutrients
5.3.1. Nitrogen
5.3.2. Phosphorus
- Al-associated P species (AlPO4, 40%);
- organic P (phytic acid, 20%);
- Fe/Ca-associated P species (ferrihydrite-adsorbed phosphate 13%, octacalcium phosphate, 16%);
- alumina-adsorbed phosphate (11%).
5.4. Heavy Metals
5.5. Toxic Compounds
6. Hydrothermal Carbonization Process Waters Valorization
7. Industrial Implications
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Digestate | Pig Slurry and Energy-Crop Residues | Pig Slurry and Animal By-Products | Cattle Manure and Glycerin | Cattle Manure and Agro-Industrial Residues | Municipal Sewage Sludge | Organic Solid Waste |
pH | 7.80–7.90 | 7.86–8.20 | 5.64–7.35 | 7.50–7.90 | 7.6 | 7.60–8.30 a |
EC [dS m−1] | 23.3–26.0 | 21.1–30.8 | 5.20–14.5 | 8.7–25.7 | - | - |
TS [g L−1] | 28.3–43.9 | 19.5–29.5 | 17.6–72.9 | 17.6–90.1 | 25.3 ± 0.2 | 7.2–78.8 a |
TOC [g L−1] | 8.3–14.7 a | 5.8–8.4 | 8.3–42.8 | 5.8–33.7 | - | - |
COD [g L−1] | 3.7–4.3 | 1.2–3.5 | 8.2–27.6 | 1.0–5.4 | 25.8 ± 1.9 | 21.8–100.3 b |
BOD5 [g L−1] | 4.0–6.5 | 2.2–6.2 | 10.6–52.5 | 1.2–5.9 | 0.4 ± 0.03 (as SCOD) | 7.3–15.4 (as SCOD) b |
TN [g L−1] | 3.4–3.6 | 2.9–4.9 | 0.6–2.3 | 1.4–4.0 | 1.0 ± 0.02 | 4.7–8.7 b |
NH4+-N [g L−1] | 2.6–2.9 | 2.2–3.5 | 0.4 – 1.0 | 0.8–2.4 | 0.9 ± 0.01 | 1.7–27.5 a 1.7–4.5 b |
TP [g L−1] | 1.2–1.2 | 0.2–0.8 | 0.8–1.8 | 0.2–0.8 | 0.39 ± 0.003 | - |
PO4−-P [g L−1] | - | - | - | - | 0.021 ± 0.0 | - |
K [g L−1] | 2.7–3.1 | 2.0–3.1 | 0.8–1.8 | 1.1–3.1 | 0.074 ± 0.005 | - |
Al [mg L−1] | - | - | - | - | 91 ± 10 | - |
S [mg L−1] | 367–417 | 219–680 | 48–265 | 113–457 | - | - |
Ca [mg L−1] | 1863–1993 | 218–828 | 192–1753 | 1008–4026 | 1049 ± 57 | - |
Mg [mg L−1] | 633–721 | 67–365 | 79–333 | 257–698 | 194 ± 1.5 | - |
Na [mg L−1] | 666–699 | 696–995 | 66–1842 | 276–746 | 175 ± 8.2 | - |
Cl [mg L−1] | 1495–1613 | 1598–2120 | 448–685 | 452–1418 | - | - |
Fe [mg L−1] | 143–224 | 22–63 | 95–165 | 30–301 | 318 ± 32.5 | - |
Mn [mg L−1] | 23–31 | 2.9–15.4 | 3.2–17.1 | 6.0–27.5 | 3.6 ± 0.1 | - |
Zn [mg L−1] | 45.9–62.5 | 34.7–140.2 | 10.6–28.3 | 7.7–27.7 | 51 ± 5.4 | 56–300 a |
Cu [mg L−1] | 7.0–8.4 | 4.0–15.1 | 1.4–13.0 | 2.8–10.8 | 4.0 ± 0.1 | 14–80 a |
B [mg L−1] | 2.7–3.2 | 2.2–3.1 | 1.3–4.8 | 1.7–3.5 | - | - |
HTC Feedstock | Laboratory Treatment Prior to HTC | Reactor Volume | HTC Conditions | Studied Products/Characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ADSS | - | 160 mL | 250 °C, 20 h | Process waters Hydrochar | Berge et al. (2011) [23] |
ADSS | - | 500 mL | 160, 220, 250 °C, 30 min | Process waters Hydrochar | Aragón-briceño et al. (2017) [34] |
ADSS | - | 200 mL | 120–240 °C, 1–60 min | Process waters Hydrochar MAP precipitation | Yu et al. (2017) [81] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Water dilution Use of CaO additive | 1000 mL | 200 to 380 °C, 20 min 500 rpm | Process waters Hydrochar MAP precipitation | He et al. (2015) [59] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Water dilution in order to obtain a TS content of 20% Use of citric acid as catalyst | 25.0 L | 205 °C, 7 h pH regulation by acetic acid and sodium hydroxide | Process waters Hydrochar Dewaterability | Escala et al. (2013) [82] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Pre-dried at 105 °C for 12 h Water dilution | 1000 mL | 200 to 380 °C, 20 min 500 rpm | Process waters Hydrochar Ammonia stripping | He et al. (2015) [83] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | - | 200 mL | 160, 200, 240 °C, 4, 8, 12 h | Process waters Hydrochar N distribution | Shen et al. (2018) [84] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Water dilution Addition of Cd | 200 mL | 200, 280 °C, 1 h | Process waters Hydrochar P distibution | Shi et al. (2014) [85] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Water dilution Addition of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb | 200 mL | 170, 200. 280 °C, 1 h | Process waters Hydrochar P and HM distribution | Shi et al. (2013) [86] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | - | 125 mL | 200 °C, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 h | Hydrochar | He et al. (2013) [28] |
ADSS | Water dilution | 1000 mL | 180–200 °C, 30 min 200 rpm | Hydrochar Dewaterability | Kim et al. (2014) [32] |
ADSS | Water dilution | 200 mL | 200 °C, 24 h | Hydrochar | Alatalo et al. (2013) [87] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Pre-dried at 105 °C for 24 h Triturated | 500 mL | 200, 230, 260 °C, 2 h | Hydrochar P evolution | Wang et al. (2017) [78] |
Dewatered ADSS (solid) | Water dilution | 20 mL | 225°C, 4–16 h | Hydrochar P distribution | Huang and Tang (2016) [88] |
ADSS | 3.0 m3 | 200 °C, 6 h pH regulation by citric acid | Process waters HTC + AD | Wirth et al. (2015) [89] | |
AGS | - | 200 mL | 160, 200, 240 °C, 1 h | Process waters Hydrochar AD+HTC | Yu et al. (2018) [90] |
ADSS | 3.0 m3 | 200 °C, 6 h pH regulation by citric acid | Condensate | Wirth and Reza (2016) [70] | |
Anaerobically digested wheat straw (thermophilic digestion) | Pre-dried at 60 °C for 72 h Water dilution in order to obtain a carbon concentration of 26.6 g L−1 | 1000 mL | 190, 210, 230, 250 °C, 1, 2.5, 4 h | Hydrochar | Funke et al. (2013) [33] |
Anaerobically digested maize silage (thermophilic digestion) | Water dilution in order to obtain a carbon concentration of 42.3 g L−1 | 1000 mL | 190, 230, 270 °C, 2, 6, 10 h 90 rpm pH regulation by citric acid (pH 3, 5, 7) | Hydrochar | Mumme et al. (2011) [10] |
Anaerobically digested wheat straw (thermophilic digestion) | Water dilution in order to obtain a TS content of 10% | 1000 mL | 230 °C, 6 h 90 rev/min | Hydrochar | Mumme et al. (2014) [66] |
Dried anaerobically digested cow manure and maize (mass ratio of 4:3 as feedstock) and zeolite | Pre-dried at 105 °C for 24 h Cut to particle size below 1 mm Water dilution | 1000 mL | 190, 230, 270 °C, 2 h 90 rev/min Addition of zeolite | Hydrochar–zeolite composite | Mumme et al. (2015) [79] |
Anaerobically digested agro-industrial biomass | Pre-dried at 60 °C for 48 h | 75 mL | 250 °C, 1 h | Process waters Hydrochar | Ekpo et al. (2016) [91] |
Anaerobically digested wheat straw (thermophilic digestion) | Pre-dried at 60 °C for 48 h Water dilution in order to obtain a carbon concentration of 26.7 g L−1 | 125 mL | 190, 230, 250, 270 °C, 6.0 h | Process waters | Becker et al. (2014) [80] |
Anaerobically digested corn silage | - | Full-scale plant located at Karlsruhe, Germany | 220 °C, 6.0 h | Process waters Valorization process waters througth AD | Wirth and Mumme (2014) [92] |
Dewatered anaerobically digested algal biomass | Water dilution | 300 mL | 200 °C, 1 h | Process waters HTC + AD system | Nuchdang et al. (2018) [93] |
Dewatered anaerobically digested agro-industrial biomass | 25.0 L | 180 °C, 4 h | Process waters Hydrochar | Oliveira et al. (2013) [26] | |
Dewatered anaerobically digested municipal solid waste | - | 100 mL | 200, 250, 300 °C 0.5, 2 h 90 rpm | Process waters, Hydrochar | Reza et al. (2016) [94] |
Anaerobically digested corn silage | Full-scale plant, Germany | 180 °C, 8–10 h | Process water Hydrochar Toxicity | Bargmann et al. (2013) [95] |
References | Raw Material and HTC Conditions | Yield | pH | TOC | Soluble COD | VFAs | Acetic Acid | TS | Total N | NH4+-N | Total Soluble P | Ortho-P | Total K | Phenols | Others | C | H | N | S | O |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
- | mgC L−1 | mg L−1 | mgCOD L−1 | mg L−1 | % | mgN L−1 | mgN L−1 | mgP L−1 | mgP L−1 | mgK L−1 | % | % | % | % | % | |||||
Berge et al. (2011) [23] | ADSS | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 250 °C, 20 h | - | 8.0 | 4000 | 10000 | YES 1 | YES 1 | ||||||||||||||
Aragón-briceño et al. (2017) [34] | ADSS | 7.8 | 461.6 | 1843 | 4.8 | 4.5 | 1493 | 1344 | 91.3 | 80.1 | 30.5 | 4.4 | 10.2 | 0.7 | 54.1 | |||||
HTC 160 °C, 30 min | 9.1 | 4686 | 12,642 | 191.1 | 2066 | 1258 | 94.0 | 53.9 | 45.8 | 6.8 | 11.1 | 1.9 | 34.5 | |||||||
HTC 220 °C, 30 min | 7.1 | 4584 | 12,992 | 406.0 | 2191 | 1704 | 72.6 | 59.8 | 49.2 | 6.3 | 12.3 | 2.4 | 29.8 | |||||||
HTC 250 °C, 30 min | 8.1 | 4879 | 12,164 | 715.7 | 2354 | 1685 | 103.8 | 56.8 | 68.0 | 6.6 | 6.6 | 1.8 | 10.9 | |||||||
He et al. (2015) [59] | Dewatered ADSS | 17.5 | ||||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 20 min | 87 (%vol) | 8.6 | 24,070 | 63,900 | 12,000 | 4020 | 246 | YES 1 | ||||||||||||
HTC 280 °C, 20 min | 98 (%vol) | 8.4 | 16,000 | 40,000 | 10,100 | 6400 | 191 | |||||||||||||
HTC 380 °C, 20 min | 95(%vol) | 8.1 | 12,510 | 30,400 | 10,000 | 7980 | 89 | |||||||||||||
HTC 380 °C, 20min, CaO | 10.0 | 18,630 | 55,800 | 12,000 | 8700 | 21 | ||||||||||||||
Escala et al. (2013) [82] | Dewatered ADSS | 6.9–7.4 | 23.9 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 205°C, 7h, Ca | 7.0 | 53,000 | 2590 | 2047 | 14.3 | 11.5 | 666 | |||||||||||||
HTC 205°C, 7h | 6.9 | 40,600 | 2710 | 2153 | 17.8 | 4.8 | 633 | |||||||||||||
Shi et al. (2014) [85] | Dewatered ADSS | 6.4 | 15 | 3150 | 3900 | |||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 1h | 0.2%+ | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 280 °C, 1h | 0.6%+ | |||||||||||||||||||
Yu et al. (2017) [81] | ADSS | 6.3 | 1800 | 1.8 | 300 | 370 | ||||||||||||||
HTC 160 °C, 30 min | 6.0 | 4000 | 400 | 480 | ||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 30 min | 5.7 | 5000 | 450 | 570 | ||||||||||||||||
HTC 240 °C, 30 min | 5.5 | 6000 | 490 | 400 | ||||||||||||||||
Shi et al. (2013) [86] | Dewatered ADSS | 6.4 | 14.5 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 170 °C, 1 h | 7.6 | 2357 | 12.5 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 1h | 8.5 | 2586 | 15.8 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 280 °C, 1 h | 9.2 | 3566 | 30.4 | |||||||||||||||||
Wirth et al. (2015) [89] | ADSS | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 6 h, pH regulation | 4.7 | 13,400 | 34300 | 2060 | 3.4 | 2800 | 1000 | YES 2 | ||||||||||||
Yu et al., (2018) [90] | AGS | 6.8 | 1118 | 100 | 0 | 9.5 | ||||||||||||||
HTC 160 °C, 1 h | 6.0 | 15,611 | 454 | 300 | ||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 1 h | 5.8 | 1100 | 900 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 240 °C, 1 h | 5.6 | 2557 | 2000 | |||||||||||||||||
Ekpo et al. (2016) [91] | Agro-industrial digestate | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 250 °C, 1 h | 30 (wt%) | 7.7 | 62,350 | 18,610 | 10,235 | 840 | 2340 | |||||||||||||
Becker et al. (2014) [80] | Wheat straw digestate | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 190 °C, 6.0 h | 4.0 | 5800 | 1000 | YES 3 | YES 3 | |||||||||||||||
HTC 230 °C, 6.0 h | 4.0 | 9000 | 1000 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 250 °C, 6.0 h | 4.0 | 7800 | 1250 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 270 °C, 6.0 h | 4.0 | 9500 | 1200 | |||||||||||||||||
Wirth and Mumme (2014) [92] | Corn silage digestate | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 220 °C, 6.0 h | 3.88 | 15,660 | 41,350 | 5260 | 2.8 | 685 | 229 | 197 | 290 | |||||||||||
Nuchdang et al. (2018) [93] | Microalgae digestate | 1926 | 0.9 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 1.0 h | 8204 | 0.9 | ||||||||||||||||||
Reza et al. (2016) [94] | MSW digestate | 8.1 | 23 | |||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 30 min | 8.2 | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 200 °C, 2.0 h | 8.3 | |||||||||||||||||||
Bargmann et al. (2013) [95] | Corn silage digestate | |||||||||||||||||||
HTC 180 °C, 9.0 h | 5.7 | 83.3 | 20.3 | 328 |
Compound | Application |
---|---|
1-Methyl-4-[nitromethyl]-4-piperidinol | Production of antitumor agents and products involved in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases |
1-Methyldodecylamine | Preparation of N,N,N,N,N,N- trimethyldodecylammonium bromide |
1-Phenethyl-piperidin-4-ol | - |
1-Propanol, 2-amino- | Organic syntheses (e.g, Schiff base ligands) |
2,5-Pyrrolidinedione, 1-ethyl- | Organic syntheses |
2,5-Pyrrolidinedione, 1-methyl- | Organic syntheses, as well as in some industrial silver-plating processes |
2-Butanamine, (S) | Production of some pesticides |
2-Cyclopenten-1-one, 2,3-dimethyl- | - |
2-Cyclopenten-1-one, 2-methyl- | - |
2-Heptanamine, 5-methyl- | - |
2-Propanamine | Production of some herbicides and pesticides including atrazine, bentazon, glyphosate; agent for plastics; intermediate in organic synthesis of coating materials, pesticides, plastics, rubber chemicals, pharmaceuticals and others; additive in the petroleum industry |
3-Aminopyridine | Synthesis of organic ligand 3-pyridylnicotinamide. |
3-Buten-2-one, 3-methyl-, dimethylhydrazone | - |
3-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 4-methyl- | - |
4-Fluorohistamine | Organic syntheses |
Acetic acid | Production of cellulose acetate for photographic film, polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, and synthetic fibers and fabrics; descaling agent, used in the food industry, in biochemistry |
Benzoic acid, 2,4-dihydroxy-, (3-diethylamino-1- methyl)propyl ester | - |
Dimethylamine | Dehairing agent in tanning, in dyes, in rubber accelerators, in soaps and cleaning compounds; agricultural fungicide |
dl-Alanine | Food and pharmaceutical industry; plating chemicals and animal feed |
Formic acid phenyl ester | Used for palladium-catalyzed carbonylation of aryl, alkenyl and allyl halides; used as a reagent for the formulation of amines |
Hydrogen chloride | Used in cleaning, pickling, electroplating metals, tanning leather, and refining and as an agent for producing a wide variety of products |
Methylpent-4-enylamine | - |
Phenethylamine, p-methoxy-.alpha.-methyl-, (.+/-.)- | - |
Phenol | Precursor to many materials and useful compounds; used to synthesize plastics and related materials; production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides, and numerous pharmaceutical drugs. |
Phenol, 4-methyl- | Production of antioxidants, e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene |
Pyrazole, 1-methyl-4-nitro- | - |
Tetrahydro-4H-pyran-4-ol | - |
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Langone, M.; Basso, D. Process Waters from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Sludge: Characteristics and Possible Valorization Pathways. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186618
Langone M, Basso D. Process Waters from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Sludge: Characteristics and Possible Valorization Pathways. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(18):6618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186618
Chicago/Turabian StyleLangone, Michela, and Daniele Basso. 2020. "Process Waters from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Sludge: Characteristics and Possible Valorization Pathways" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 18: 6618. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186618